Dargestellt ist der Blick von der ISS direkt nach unten zur Erde. [107] are still to be launched. [21] The station has since been continuously occupied for 21years and 261days,[22] the longest continuous human presence in low Earth orbit, having surpassed the previous record of 9years and 357days held by the Mir space station. [330][331], Subatomic charged particles, primarily protons from cosmic rays and solar wind, are normally absorbed by Earth's atmosphere. [159][195] In April 2021, Roscosmos announced that NEM-1 would be repurposed to function as the core module of the proposed Russian Orbital Service Station (ROSS), launching no earlier than 2025 and docking to the free-flying Nauka module either before or after the ISS has been deorbited.

The module's design is similar to the Mir Docking Module launched on STS-74 in 1995. Several modules planned for the station were cancelled over the course of the ISS programme. Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs) are spare parts that can be readily replaced when a unit either passes its design life or fails. Its successful installation meant that from NASA's perspective, the station was considered to be "U.S.

"[99] Yuri Semenov, the President of Russian Space Corporation Energia at the time, disapproved of the name "Alpha" as he felt that Mir was the first modular space station, so the names "Beta" or "Mir2" for the ISS would have been more fitting.[98][100][101].

[79], In May 2013, commander Chris Hadfield shot a music video of David Bowie's "Space Oddity" on board the station, which was released on YouTube.

These findings may improve knowledge about energy production and lead to economic and environmental benefits. It contains environmental control systems, life support systems, a toilet, exercise equipment, and an observation cupola. ESA and NASA criticised private spaceflight at the beginning of the ISS, and NASA initially resisted training Dennis Tito, the first person to pay for his own passage to the ISS. A Soyuz-U rocket delivered the Pirs docking compartment. [7][69] ESA offers a wide range of free teaching materials that can be downloaded for use in classrooms. [72] Through a series of education guides, students develop a deeper understanding of the past and near-term future of crewed space flight, as well as that of Earth and life. [163] Several shuttle missions were dedicated to the delivery of ORUs, including STS-129,[164] STS-133[165] and STS-134. The EATCS consists of an internal, non-toxic, water coolant loop used to cool and dehumidify the atmosphere, which transfers collected heat into an external liquid ammonia loop. The Joint Airlock was built by Boeing at Marshall Space Flight Center. These were soon followed by the first two components of Kib. Inspections during EVAs on STS-120 and STS-123 showed extensive contamination from metallic shavings and debris in the large drive gear and confirmed damage to the large metallic bearing surfaces, so the joint was locked to prevent further damage. [413], In July 2018, the Space Frontier Act of 2018 was intended to extend operations of the ISS to 2030. The first scheduled exercise of the day follows, after which the crew continues work until 13:05. Nespoli is credited as the director of photography for this documentary film, as he recorded the majority of the footage himself during Expedition 26/27. The four Main Bus Switching Units (MBSUs, located in the S0 truss), control the routing of power from the four solar array wings to the rest of the ISS. The Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle parked itself in progressively closer orbits to the station, and then awaited 'approach' commands from the crew, until it was close enough for a robotic arm to grapple and berth the vehicle to the USOS. [315][316][317] Visiting crews have no allocated sleep module, and attach a sleeping bag to an available space on a wall. (and Other Space Questions Answered)", "Upgraded ISS Now Has a 600 Megabit per Second Internet Connection", "The ISS Now Has Better Internet Than Most of Us After Its Latest Upgrade", "ESA ISS Science & System Operations Status Report #150 Increment 36: 13-26 July 2013", "Computer problems overcome during STS-100", "NASA: Space Station Computer Crash May Extend Shuttle Mission", "NASA battles failure of space station computer", "NASA Plans Emergency Spacewalk To Replace Key Computer On International Space Station", "Penguins in spa-a-a-ce! Radiation can penetrate living tissue and damage the DNA and chromosomes of lymphocytes; being central to the immune system, any damage to these cells could contribute to the lower immunity experienced by astronauts. Notes: Never inhabited due to launch or on-orbit failure, Part of the, Science Power Modules 1 and 2 (Repurposed Components), Modules/spacecraft pending relocation/installation, Temporary docking adapter used till Prichal module arrival. On 15 May 2009 the damaged radiator panel's ammonia tubing was mechanically shut off from the rest of the cooling system by the computer-controlled closure of a valve. The Cupola's central window has a diameter of 80cm (31in). Research is conducted in a wide variety of fields, including astrobiology, astronomy, physical sciences, materials science, space weather, meteorology, and human research including space medicine and the life sciences. The primary supply of oxygen is the Elektron unit which produces .mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}O2 and H2 by electrolysis of water and vents H2 overboard. This bill was unanimously approved in the Senate, but failed to pass in the U.S. ORUs are parts that can be replaced when they fail or pass their design life, including pumps, storage tanks, antennas, and battery units. The International Space Station (ISS) is the largest modular space station currently in low Earth orbit. "ISS" redirects here. Each Strela crane has a mass of 45kg (99lb). "[400] Rozogin later tweeted that normal relations between ISS partners could only be restored once sanctions have been lifted, and indicated that Roscosmos would submit proposals to the Russian government on ending cooperation. [278], Other vehicles berth instead of docking. It was formerly one of two MPLM used for bringing cargo to and from the ISS with the Space Shuttle. [417], The ISS has been described as the most expensive single item ever constructed. Although the initial development costs were high, the system has become very reliable with standardisations that provide significant cost benefits in repetitive operations. Columbus is a science laboratory that is part of the ISS and is the largest single contribution to the station made by the European Space Agency. The mobile base system, a connecting framework for Canadarm2 mounted on rails, was built by Northrop Grumman. For clarity, they are shown apart.

The batteries are recharged on the day side of the orbit. 'Nodal Module Berth'),[155] is a 4-tonne (8,800lb)[156] ball-shaped module that will provide the Russian segment additional docking ports to receive Soyuz MS and Progress MS spacecraft. The European ATV uses star sensors and GPS to determine its intercept course. [343], In April 2019, NASA reported that a comprehensive study had been conducted into the microorganisms and fungi present on the ISS. The contract is under the NextSTEP2 program. Expeditions 1 to 6 consisted of three-person crews.

[264][265] The other spacecraft the Japanese HTV, the SpaceX Dragon (under CRS phase 1), and the Northrop Grumman[266] Cygnus rendezvous with the station before being grappled using Canadarm2 and berthed at the nadir port of the Harmony or Unity module for one to two months.

[341][342], Contamination on space stations can be prevented by reduced humidity, and by using paint that contains mould-killing chemicals, as well as the use of antiseptic solutions.

[322] The ISS does not feature a shower; instead, crewmembers wash using a water jet and wet wipes, with soap dispensed from a toothpaste tube-like container. Specifically, these goals have been the primary focus of the ISS Multilateral Medical Operations Panel (MMOP) Acoustics Subgroup since the first days of ISS assembly and operations. Outside Earth's atmosphere, ISS crews are exposed to approximately one millisievert each day (about a year's worth of natural exposure on Earth), resulting in a higher risk of cancer. The module also provides a reading lamp, a shelf and a desktop. Lab, is the primary operating facility for U.S. research payloads aboard the ISS. [397] The 1998 Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement sets forth the primary framework for international cooperation among the parties.

The atmosphere on board the ISS is similar to that of Earth. Harmony was successfully launched into space aboard Space Shuttle flight STS-120 on 23October 2007. Before its retirement, Shuttle launches were often given priority over Soyuz, with occasional priority given to Soyuz arrivals carrying crew and time-critical cargoes, such as biological experiment materials.[284].

In the first phase of Kib utilisation from 2008 to mid-2010, researchers from more than a dozen Japanese universities conducted experiments in diverse fields. Crew supervise these craft, but do not intervene except to send abort commands in emergencies. Zvezda then became the passive target for a rendezvous with Zarya and Unity, maintaining a station-keeping orbit while the ZaryaUnity vehicle performed the rendezvous and docking via ground control and the Russian automated rendezvous and docking system. [37][357], Atmospheric drag reduces the altitude by about 2km a month on average. [37] Crews fly expeditions of several months' duration, providing approximately 160 person-hours per week of labour with a crew of six. People have designed and built these vessels, launched them with a good feeling that a name will bring good fortune to the crew and success to their voyage. For other uses, see, ISS-65 Pirs docking compartment separates from the Space Station, One of the eight truss mounted pairs of USOS solar arrays, ISS new roll out solar array as seen from a zoom camera on the P6 Truss, Laptop computers surround the Canadarm2 console, An error message displays a problem with hard drive on ISS laptop, Soyuz TM-31 being prepared to bring the first resident crew to the station in October 2000, The main toilet in the US Segment inside the, Graph showing the changing altitude of the ISS from November 1998 until November 2018. Examples of ORUs are pumps, storage tanks, controller boxes, antennas, and battery units. Expeditions run up to six months, from launch until undocking, an 'increment' covers the same time period, but includes cargo spacecraft and all activities. The module is controlled by the Columbus Control Centre, located at the German Space Operations Center, part of the German Aerospace Center in Oberpfaffenhofen near Munich, Germany. Assuming 20,000 person-days of use from 2000 to 2015 by two- to six-person crews, each person-day would cost $7.5million, less than half the inflation-adjusted $19.6million ($5.5million before inflation) per person-day of Skylab. [182] Also installed during STS-134 was the 15m (50ft) Orbiter Boom Sensor System (OBSS), which had been used to inspect heat shield tiles on Space Shuttle missions and which can be used on the station to increase the reach of the MSS. The ISS is the ninth space station to be inhabited by crews, following the Soviet and later Russian Salyut, Almaz, and Mir stations and the American Skylab. Currently docked on station, it could not have been easily accommodated on a free flying satellite platform because of its power and bandwidth needs. [348][349] The effort includes contributions from acoustical engineers, audiologists, industrial hygienists, and physicians who comprise the subgroup's membership from NASA, Roscosmos, the European Space Agency (ESA), the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). Sleeping cabins for four of the crew are housed here.[128]. [378][379], In November 2021, a debris cloud from the destruction of Kosmos 1408 by an anti-satellite weapons test threatened the ISS, leading to the announcement of a yellow alert, leading to crew sheltering in the crew capsules. [127] Since the departure of the identical Pirs module on July 26, 2021, Poisk has served as the only airlock on the ROS. These modules were delivered to the Operations and Checkout Building and the Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF) for final assembly and processing for launch. [26] The station is serviced by a variety of visiting spacecraft: the Russian Soyuz and Progress, the SpaceX Dragon 2, and the Northrop Grumman Space Systems Cygnus,[27] and formerly the European Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle,[7] and SpaceX Dragon 1. The results may be useful in improving the health and safety conditions for astronauts.[344][345].

The Joint Airlock was launched on ISS-7A / STS-104 in July 2001 and was attached to the right hand docking port of Node 1. [222], UHF radio is used by astronauts and cosmonauts conducting EVAs and other spacecraft that dock to or undock from the station. This can cause problems like getting lost inside the space station, pulling switches in the wrong direction or misjudging the speed of an approaching vehicle during docking. [294] It is also known that a Service Module thruster cover struck the S1 radiator after being jettisoned during an EVA in 2008, but its effect, if any, has not been determined. Each 'candle' takes 520 minutes to decompose at 450500C (842932F), producing 600 litres (130impgal; 160USgal) of O2. The Automated Transfer Vehicle is constructed with the possibility of adding a second docking port to its aft end, allowing other craft to dock and boost the station.

Astronaut Scott Kelly spent a year in space on the ISS, while his twin spent the year on Earth. Russian Embassy School in Washington, D.C. United States and the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Space_Station&oldid=1099617686, Articles with dead external links from June 2017, Articles with permanently dead external links, Wikipedia articles needing time reference citations from September 2019, Articles with dead external links from August 2021, Articles with failed verification from May 2021, Articles containing potentially dated statements from June 2022, All articles containing potentially dated statements, Articles containing potentially dated statements from November 2021, Articles containing potentially dated statements from April 2022, Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images, Articles containing potentially dated statements from September 2011, Articles needing additional references from November 2015, All articles needing additional references, Articles containing Russian-language text, Articles containing Japanese-language text, Articles containing Italian-language text, Articles containing potentially dated statements from January 2011, Wikipedia articles in need of updating from January 2013, All Wikipedia articles in need of updating, Articles lacking reliable references from January 2022, Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2021, Articles containing potentially dated statements from December 2021, Articles containing potentially dated statements from December 2020, All Wikipedia articles needing clarification, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2022, Wikipedia articles incorporating text from NASA, Pages using Sister project links with default search, Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata, Articles with MusicBrainz place identifiers, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0. [334] ISS crew flights typically last about five to six months. Zarya's computer transferred control of the station to Zvezda's computer soon after docking. It is the largest artificial object in space and the largest satellite in low Earth orbit, regularly visible to the naked eye from Earth's surface. [276], Soyuz spacecraft used for crew rotation also serve as lifeboats for emergency evacuation; they are replaced every six months and were used after the Columbia disaster to return stranded crew from the ISS. [78] The film was streamed in a global YouTube premiere in 2011 under a free licence through the website firstorbit.org. The latest major pressurised module, Nauka, was fitted in 2021, a little over ten years after the previous major addition, Leonardo in 2011. The FTCs each contain three identical processing units working in parallel and provide advanced fault-masking by majority voting. Zvezda was initially manufactured in 1985 as a component for Mir-2, but was never launched and instead became the ISS Service Module. [406], At the end of 2011, the Exploration Gateway Platform concept also proposed using leftover USOS hardware and Zvezda 2 as a refuelling depot and service station located at one of the Earth-Moon Lagrange points. [86], The Russian modules, including Zarya and Zvezda, were manufactured at the Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center in Moscow. [24][25][416], In January 2022, NASA announced a planned date of January 2031 to de-orbit the ISS and direct any remnants into a remote area of the South Pacific Ocean. The European Space Agency has spent 1.4 billion (about US$2 billion) on building Columbus, including the experiments it carries and the ground control infrastructure necessary to operate them. Planned components are shown in white, non installed, temporarily defunct or non-commissioned components are shown in brown and former ones in gray. In February 2005, during Expedition 10, an incorrect command was sent to the station's computer, using about 14kilograms of propellant before the fault was noticed and fixed. Part of Boeing's services under the contract will relate to extending the station's primary structural hardware past 2020 to the end of 2028. Berthed craft can transfer International Standard Payload Racks.

When they interact in sufficient quantity, their effect is visible to the naked eye in a phenomenon called an aurora.

However, a considerable amount of crew time is taken up by station maintenance.[10][40]. The station is divided into two sections: the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS) is operated by Russia, while the United States Orbital Segment (USOS) is run by the United States as well as by the other states.

This partial station evacuation has occurred on 13 March 2009, 28 June 2011, 24 March 2012 and 16 June 2015. [294] The imagery showed that the surface of one sub-panel has peeled back from the underlying central structure, possibly because of micro-meteoroid or debris impact. [410] In a statement provided to SpaceNews on 28 March, NASA spokesman David Weaver said the agency appreciated the Russian commitment to extending the ISS, but did not confirm any plans for a future space station.

The Nauka laboratory has a complete set of life support systems. [136], The Cupola is an ESA-built observatory module of the ISS. It arrived at the ISS on 10April 2016,[147] was berthed to the station on 16April at Tranquility Node 3, and was expanded and pressurized on 28May 2016. [325], On 12 April 2019, NASA reported medical results from the Astronaut Twin Study.

A study of the longest spaceflight concluded that the first three weeks are a critical period where attention is adversely affected because of the demand to adjust to the extreme change of environment. This will help develop essential skills in operating spacecraft farther from Earth, reduce mission risks, and advance the capabilities of interplanetary spacecraft. [375][377] If a threat from orbital debris is identified too late for a DAM to be safely conducted, the station crew close all the hatches aboard the station and retreat into their spacecraft in order to be able to evacuate in the event the station was seriously damaged by the debris. [111] The mass of experiments, spare parts, personal effects, crew, foodstuff, clothing, propellants, water supplies, gas supplies, docked spacecraft, and other items add to the total mass of the station. It was flown into space aboard the Space Shuttle on STS-133 on 24 February 2011 and installed on 1 March.

The US segment includes ten modules, whose support services are distributed 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA and 2.3% for CSA. [246], Travellers who pay for their own passage into space are termed spaceflight participants by Roscosmos and NASA, and are sometimes referred to as "space tourists", a term they generally dislike.

The space environment is hostile to life. [303] The loss of MBSU-1 limited the station to 75% of its normal power capacity, requiring minor limitations in normal operations until the problem could be addressed.

The module is called the Expandable Bigelow Advanced Station Enhancement (XBASE), as Bigelow hopes to test the module by attaching it to the International Space Station. Earth-like atmospheric conditions have been maintained on all Russian and Soviet spacecraft. The blue areas are pressurised sections accessible by the crew without using spacesuits. Sound levels in the station are unavoidably high.

Forward ports are at the front of the station according to its normal direction of travel and orientation (, Ruttley, Tara M., Julie A. Robinson, and William H. Gerstenmaier. These levels of noise also impose risks to crew health and performance in the form of sleep interference and communication, as well as reduced alarm audibility. [357] Maintaining ISS altitude uses about 7.5 tonnes of chemical fuel per annum[358] at an annual cost of about $210million.[359]. [398], Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, continued cooperation between Russia and other countries on the International Space Station has been put into question. It had a temporary docking adapter on its nadir port for crewed and uncrewed missions until Prichal arrival, where just before its arrival it was removed by a departuring Progress spacecraft. The Leonardo PMM was a Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) before 2011, but was modified into its current configuration. [259], A wide variety of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft have supported the station's activities. Pirs was undocked by Progress MS-16 on 26July 2021, 10:56 UTC, and deorbited on the same day at 14:51 UTC to make room for Nauka module to be attached to the space station. [306], The time zone used aboard the ISS is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). [419], Beside numerous documentaries such as the IMAX documentaries Space Station 3D from 2002,[420] or A Beautiful Planet from 2016,[421] the ISS is subject of feature films such as The Day After Tomorrow (2004),[422] Life (2017),[423] Love (2011),[424] or together with the Chinese station Tiangong space station in Gravity (2013).[425]. [104] The last pressurised module of the USOS, Leonardo, was brought to the station in February 2011 on the final flight of Discovery, STS-133. The airlock will be used only to pass experiments inside and outside the module, with the aid of ERA very similar to the Japanese airlock and Nanoracks Bishop Airlock on the U.S. segment of the station. Finally, hearing thresholds are monitored on-orbit, during missions. An outward-opening hatch on the Mir space station failed after it swung open too fast after unlatching, because of a small amount of air pressure remaining in the airlock. [7][26][215] Data channels for the Canadarm2, European Columbus laboratory and Japanese Kib modules were originally also routed via the S band and Ku band systems, with the European Data Relay System and a similar Japanese system intended to eventually complement the TDRSS in this role. [77], First Orbit is a 2011 feature-length documentary film about Vostok 1, the first crewed space flight around the Earth. Major ISS modules have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets and US Space Shuttles.

A 7-gram object (shown in centre) shot at 7km/s (23,000ft/s), the orbital velocity of the ISS, made this 15cm (5.9in) crater in a solid block of aluminium. British Prime Minister Boris Johnson commented on the current status of cooperation, saying "I have been broadly in favour of continuing artistic and scientific collaboration, but in the current circumstances it's hard to see how even those can continue as normal. This alleviates the bends as the astronauts are repressurized after their EVA. Progress and former ATV can remain docked for up to six months. A 'stand-off' occurred at the Johnson Space Center between Commander Talgat Musabayev and NASA manager Robert Cabana who refused to train Dennis Tito, a member of Musabayev's crew along with Yuri Baturin. [401] NASA stated that, if necessary, US corporation Northrop Grumman has offered a reboost capability that would keep the ISS in orbit.

'Science'), also known as the Multipurpose Laboratory Module-Upgrade (MLM-U), (Russian: , , or -), is a Roscosmos-funded component of the ISS that was launched on 21July 2021, 14:58 UTC.

[304], On 24 December 2013, astronauts installed a new ammonia pump for the station's cooling system. Triple-redundancy is provided by the Elektron unit, solid fuel generators, and stored oxygen. It launched on 7February 2001, aboard the Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-98. On the USOS, Whipple Shields are used.

The Space Shuttles Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour delivered the Destiny laboratory and Quest airlock, in addition to the station's main robot arm, the Canadarm2, and several more segments of the Integrated Truss Structure. Several long-lasting changes were observed, including those related to alterations in DNA and cognition, when one twin was compared with the other.

To keep the internal temperature within workable limits, a passive thermal control system (PTCS) is made of external surface materials, insulation such as MLI, and heat pipes. Microbiological hazards have led to a development of the LOCAD-PTS which identifies common bacteria and moulds faster than standard methods of culturing, which may require a sample to be sent back to Earth. Heat generated by the laptops does not rise but stagnates around the laptop, so additional forced ventilation is required. [10][11][12][38][39] Scientists on Earth have timely access to the data and can suggest experimental modifications to the crew. The acoustic environment on ISS changed when additional modules were added during its construction, and as additional spacecraft arrive at the ISS. [31], The ISS was originally intended to be a laboratory, observatory, and factory while providing transportation, maintenance, and a low Earth orbit staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars, and asteroids. Common sources of stress in early US missions included maintaining high performance under public scrutiny and isolation from peers and family. In 2005, during the initial "proton storm" of an X-3 class solar flare, the crew of Expedition 10 took shelter in a more heavily shielded part of the ROS designed for this purpose. [66] NASA chief Charles Bolden stated in February 2011, "Any mission to Mars is likely to be a global effort". From the heat exchangers, ammonia is pumped into external radiators that emit heat as infrared radiation, then back to the station. The crew airlock was derived from the Space Shuttle's external airlock. In March 2009, STS-119 completed the Integrated Truss Structure with the installation of the fourth and final set of solar arrays. The ISS is visible to the naked eye as a slow-moving, bright white dot because of reflected sunlight, and can be seen in the hours after sunset and before sunrise, when the station remains sunlit but the ground and sky are dark. The outermost docking port on the module allows docking of Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, and the automatic transfer of propellants to and from storage on the ROS. All materials used in the ISS are tested for resistance against fungi. Perhaps the most notable ISS experiment is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), which is intended to detect dark matter and answer other fundamental questions about our universe.