Subunits became larger, and the legion incorporated a detachment of heavy cavalry as well as field artillery in the form of catapultsthus turning into a combined-arms unit and becoming a true forerunner of the modern division. Alternatively, they could themselves move to the sides and perform an enveloping manoeuver against an opponent. Yet the legion, too, had its limitations when it came to fighting in the dense forests of Germany or, even more so, the open deserts of the Middle East. The tactics were simple but versatile enough to face different enemies in multiple terrains: From the forests of Germania to the rocky planes of the Greek peninsula. It was also the source of the empires economic and political strength, ensuring domestic peace so that trade could flourish. It was supremely adaptableand quickly changing, but here are 3 tactics that are valued over time: Re-enactors demonstrating a testudo formation. Event the formation in which they arranged themselves in a rectangular formation to fight was borrowed from the Greeks of Macedonia, with little improvements . This is where the short legionary gladius was useful, held low and used as a thrusting weapon, while the longer Celtic and Germanic swords became impossible to wield.
superior numbers, better soldiers, or luck to carry the day. If there was any infantry, it was made up of archers, whose bows had longer range than the smaller bows of the horsemen.Handbooks were published, most famously by the general and later emperor Maurice (the strategicon), the emperor Leo VI (the tactica) and Nicephorus Phocas (the updated tactica). Forming an excellent missile barrier with their sharply curve fronts. As numerous battles showed, where the terrain was uneven and the chain of command broke down, the legions advantage was even more pronounced. 1500 men) and the Supporting Line (ca. The Emperor used the army to protect Rome and to control the people it had conquered. Often though infantry was not part of the conflict at all, with commanders relying entirely on their cavalry to win the day. opponent's right wing, while their own right stayed back in relative safety. The Romans introduced one of the innovations on the Greek phalanx - a 3-lined formation of three different ranks. The same tactic as No 4, but the centre is screened by light infantry or archers who can keep the enemy centre distracted while the wings engage. "He who cannot depend on either the number or courage of his troops, if obliged to engage, should begin the action with his There are three different ways you can cite this article. It was in effect the systematic revaging of an enemys territory. 3. units of light troops, followed by seven units of reserves.
Here are seven specific instructions by Vegetius regarding the layout before battle: All these tactics have the same purpose , that of breaking the enemy battle line. However, they fought with no discipline and little to no battle order at all and generally had few, if any, of their horsemen performing any reconnaissance ahead of the army. The Byzantine art of war was highly developed and eventually even contained specially developed tactics for specific opponents.Leo VIs manual, the famous tactica, provides precise instructions for dealing with various foes. A phalanx whose ranks were thrown into disorder and penetrated by the enemys infantrymen was usually lost; a legionary commander could rely on his soldiers swords to deal with intruders, meanwhile bringing up additional units from both flanks. 1. Any enemy who would try and attack the infantry would have to pass between the two wings of the cavalry. In If a weakness could be detected in the enemy line, it was exploited by using a stranger force to oppose it. Marc Antony, of subsequent Shakespearean fame, successfully used the testudo with mounted archers against the Parthians, in 36 BC., Re-enactors demonstrating a line formation. On level ground the force is drawn up with a centre, two wings and reserves in the rear. If it is successful, the left wing, reinforced with reserves, could advance and hop to complete the enveloping movement which should compress the centre. "The general who can depend on the discipline of his men should begin the engagement by attacking both of the enemy's They fought with short swords, daggers for stabbing and a long spear for throwing. Invasion into their territories was hence discouraged, though if necessary, it was recommended that extensive scouting was undertaken in order to avoid ambushes. This is the use of suitable ground on either flank to protect it, as suggested in No 2. During a retreat units are detached and left behind to ambush the enemy if there is a hasty or incautious advance, and in this way tables can often be turned. Screening was provided by light troops moving in front, cohesion by pikemen in the third and rearmost rank. Once their wings are vanquished, you may press the center. This is the sixth formation.". The Roman army was a means by which a barbarian could become a citizen, but the process was not fast. The Flanks (2 x 200 men) either side of the main Fighting Line were meant to prevent the enemys wings or flanks from circling ones own force. Horsemen were always a secondary force in ancient warfare, the main fighting being done by the infantry. After earlier defeats beyond the mountain passes of the Taurus, the Saracens concentrated on raiding and plundering expeditions instead of seeking permanent conquest.
Like this the enemy could be helplessly pressed into a narrow valley with little to no room to manoeuver. This was a variation of the fourth formation. The point of the wedge would be composed of their best troops, allowing them to penetrate against a weaker enemy. whatever protection was available. At the Battle of Pydna in 168 AD,the wedge attack helped greatlyto end the empire of Alexander the Great of Macedon. However, the attack split the army This was the default arrangement for a full legion in battle. The main part of the cavalry rode up front left side of the army was considered to be weaker, because it had to support the weight of the shield. Information about tactics can be derived from accounts of battles, but the very military manuals known to have existed and to have been used extensively by commanders, have not survived. Likewise, it was necessary to disguise ones battle line even troops were disguised to delude the enemy. And inthe Battle of Wattling Street,In the Battle of Wattling Street, after successfully stopping a British charge with spear volleys, the outnumbered Romans advanced in wedge formations to put a stop to Boudiccas great revolt in 60 or 61 AD. Hellenistic heavy infantry relied on the pike almost exclusively; the legion, by contrast, possessed both shock and firepowerthe former in the form of the short sword, or gladius, the latter delivered by the javelin, or pilum, of which most (after 100 bc, all) legionnaires carried two. The Supporting Line might have gaps in it to allow the Fighting Line to widthdraw through if necessary. The wings were positioned slightly forward, creating a kind of crescent-shaped line. This would often surprise the opponent, allowing for a quick resolution. around the opponent's left, and attacked from the rear. Crops were destroyed or carried off for Roman use, animals were taken away or simply slaughtered, people were massacred or enslaved. The importance of the choice of ground is pointed out.
The same as No 2 except that the left wing is now made the stronger and attempts a turning movement and is to be tried only when it is known that the enemys right wing is weak. The Byzantine general would hence best fight such an opponent in a series of ambushes and night attacks. The wedge was commonly used by attacking legionaries, legionaries formed up in a triangle, the front tip being one man and pointing toward the enemy, this enabled small groups to be thrust well into the enemy and, when these formations expanded, the enemy troops were pushed into restricted positions, making hand-to-hand fighting difficult. protect the flanks. However, when hunting down Slavonic raiding parties or meeting an army in open field, it was pointed out that the tribesmen fought with little or no protective armour, except for round shields. The History of Guns, iPhone History: A Timeline of Every Model in Order, The History of Bitcoin: A Complete Timeline of the Start of Web3, Ancient Civilizations Timeline: 16 Oldest Known Cultures From Around The World. these, so they turned to strategy. The lighter units were arranged around the edges to act as scouts. iPhone History: A Timeline of Every Model in Order But parts of his work were incorporated in the records of the historian Vegetius. The Legion would be split into centuries (80 men) controlled by a Centurion. In the case of punitive raids they spread terror among the neighbouring tribes and acted as a deterrent to them. If it came to battle he would pretend to flee, drawing the knights to charge his retreating army only to run into an ambush. It allowed for greater mobility and would have found many uses in the tactical handbooks of Roman generals. For this they employed the tactic of vastatio. Most military commanders of the day simply had their troops rush wildly at the enemy, relying on "If your left wing is strongest, you must attack the enemy's right, according to the third formation.". 500 men) would be posted out to the sides, ready either to help defend the Flanks, to help steady any forces of the Fighting Line driven back through the Supporting Line, or to intervene in any flanking assaults on the enemy. This highly difficult operation requires great skill and judgement. Sometiems these tactics were also used to conduct punitive raids on barbarian tribes which had performed raids across the border. and tactics that were organized by formations. Behind them came the army's baggage, servants, Vegetius also stresses the need for adequate reserves. An invading Saracen force would often turn around to defend its own borders if message of an attack reached it. This is the fifth formation.".
Some soldiers were away from their families for long periods of time, loosening their clan loyalties and replacing them with loyalty to Rome. At the back of the force a Third Line or Reserve (ca. However, this peace was often coterminous with subjugation. The function of the latter was to prevent the centre from being outflanked and once the battle turned and the enemy started to retreat the cavalry moved forward and cut them down. side, was stronger than your right. The second rank of the infantry would then use its spears to drive off any attackers whose horses came to a halt. The reasons for these tactics were simple. Often the very size of the army was skillfully hidden, troops packing tightly together to make it appear small, or spreading out to appear large. The position to be taken up by the commander was normally on the right wing. During the 1st century bc, legionary organization underwent some changes at the hands of Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla until it reached the zenith of its development about the time of Caesar. Mason-Dixon Line Striking from the right it drove into the left of the opponent which was harder to defend as most warriors would bear their weapons with their right arm. An oblique battle line with the left wing held back in a defensive position while the right advances to turn the opponents left flank. In fact, it was a collection of small, well-integrated, well-coordinated phalanxes arrayed in checkerboard formation and operating as a team. Having forced their way through a pass, their horsemen would charge into the lands at an incredible speed. 1300 men). This may take the enemy by surprise and leave his centre exposed and demoralized. The normal arrangement was to place the infantry in the centre and the cavalry on the wings. Vegetius (Frontinus) is full of the oddest stratagems to mislead the enemy or demoralize his troops.Once the enemy cracked, however, they were not to be surrounded, but an easy escape route left open. The right wing moved Re-enactors demonstrating a wedge formation. Roman soldiers had to be physically vigorous. Such a force might have been too small to seriously challenge the invaders, but it deterred small detachments of plunderers from breaking away from the main army. Thus the most important decision a general had to make concerned the disposition of the troops. It is suggested that your troops be informed that their retirement is to draw the enemy into a trap and the movement can be screened from the enemy with the use of cavalry across the front. In the battle line, each man should have three feet of space, while the distance between the ranks is given as six feet. From the time of Belisarius in the 6th century ad, the Byzantine army always supplemented its infantry and heavy cavalry with units of horse archers, usually consisting of mercenaries recruited from various barbarian tribes. and ~30 mounted troops, while the others contained ~550 infantry and ~65 cavalry. defend against attacks from the rear. "He whose light infantry is good should cover his center by forming them in its front and charge both the enemy's wings at had little to fear from an attack. The first rank would form a firm wall with their shields, only their pila protruding, forming a vicious line of glistening spearheads ahead of the wall of shields. The entire foundation of Roman infantry tactics was the idea that by keeping troops in order, one could fight This article is part of our larger resource on the Romans culture, society, economics, and warfare. Their larger bows had greater range than that of the horsemen and could so keep them at a distance. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); Gods of Death
The saw was opposite tactic to the wedge. A testudo travels appropriately like tortoise speed, and the formation was commonly used to defend distant missile attack. Though in case the infantry wings themselves were attacked they could retire behing the heavier scutati. The wedge was frequently used. They also failed to fortify their camps at night. Every soldier is required to learn a short list of terse commands. strength of the opponent's troops, and the type and strength of the Roman's troops. With both sides well covered, the army The fourth formation's main advantage was its shock value. Meanwhile the main Byzantine army was to be gathered from all around Asia Minor (Turkey) and to meet the invasion force on the battlefield.The Saracen infantry was deemed by Leo VI to be little more than an disorganized rabble, except for the occasional Ethiopian archers who though were only lightly armed and hence could not match the Byzantine infantry. The left wing kept its distance, while the reserves supported the left What Caused the Fall of the Roman Empire? Over a meter in height, the front rank of the formation would kneel next to their interlocking shields. The sun should be behind you to dazzle the enemy. Too, careful articulation, a well-rehearsed command system, and the use of standardswhich do not seem to have been carried by Hellenistic armiesmade the legion a much more flexible organization than the phalanx. Attempts to imitate its armament and methods were made right down to the 16th century, and even today some countries still call their forces legions in commemoration of its prowess. Often the right Flank was also used to attack the side of the opponents main body. As with the old Roman legion, the infantry still fought at the centre, with the cavalry at the wings. The main force would be the Fighting Line (ca. "A general whose troops are superior in number and bravery should engage in the oblong square, which is the first formation.". It was deemed most likely that the startled Saracens would leap to their horses and take homeward rather than defend their plunder. Behind the main group were seven The Roman army was the backbone of the empires power, and the Romans managed to conquer so many tribes, clans, confederations, and empires because of their military superiority. Once the Turks, harassed by the arrows of the Byzantine archers would try and close into range of their own bows, the Byzantine heavy cavalry was to ride them down. Byzantine infantry would reinforce the garrisons in the fortresses guarding the passes and the cavalry would pursue the invader driving them up into the valley. In hilly ground or in narrow valleys where the cavalry could not be used, the infantry itself had its lighter archers at the wings, whereas its heavier fighters (scutati) were placed at the centre.
Both your own men and those of the enemy need to be deceived. more effectively. The army was organised in a very simple way: 5000 Legionaries (Roman Citizens who were in the army) would form a Legion. Some descriptions of the roof of the tortoise discriminated between a lighter troop with flat shields, or heavily - armed infantry with curved scuta. It was actually deployed in sieges, to provide the troops and engineers protected access to the walls they wanted to destroy before many of permanent defensive structures could be built. this attack, the enemy's left wing cannot be reinforced, for fear that it would leave an opening for the Romans to exploit. It allows for a reasonably effective defence even if parts of an army have been divided in battle and would have required a very high level discipline by the individual soldiers. These could prevent an enemy from trying to envelope ones own forces, or could fend off enemy cavalry attacking the rear of the infantry. They were accomplished in performing ambushes and used many horsemen to scout ahead of the army.
By the time of the so-called Byzantine era (the surviving eastern Roman empire) true power on the battle field had long since passed into the hands of the cavalry. It was recommended that if your cavalry was weak it was to be stiffened with lightly armed foot soldiers. As a formation whose main power consisted of its heavy infantry, the legion remained unmatched until the introduction of firearms and beyond. The enemys lands were decimated, denying his army any form of support. In the case of all-out war or the quashing rebels in occupied territories these harsh tactics denied any enemy force the support they needed to sustain a lengthy struggle. around your flanks, the reserves will be able to counter. In front of them all, stood the newest and poorest, unfortunate velites, who would firstly throw javelins at incoming enemies before taking their postbehind the triarii. This is the second formation.". The cavalry rode up front, on the sides where they could
wings at once, the fourth formation.". "If your forces are few and weak in comparison to the enemy, you must make use of the seventh formation and cover one of your
Should however, the Saracen force only be caught up with by the time it was retreating homewards laden with plunder, then the emperor Nicephorus Phocas advised in his military manual that the armys infantry should set upon them at night from three sides, leaving open only the road back to their land. Military rank was the key to where a soldier stood in the battle order. Each situation was handled differently, taking into account terrain, the type and Another tactic was to cut off their retreat across the passes. These gaps gave more advantage that allowed the rear ranks to step up into a threatened line and create even more space for movement. The Franks and the Lombards were defined as knightly heavy cavalry which, in a direct charge, could devastate an opponent and so it was advised to avoid a pitched battle against them.
Light infantry and archers were placed in front of the center, making it far less vulnerable. In this way, they were able to counter the Arabs and, later, the Seljuqs. The wings and reserves must be strong enough to prevent any enveloping or outflanking manoeuvre.
They also carried a shield for protection as well as wearing armor. This tactic, designed for level terrain, assumes that your wings are more powerful. In case of an attack on the centre of the infantry the wings of archers would send a storm of arrows upon the attacker. The sixth formation was similar to the second, with both having the right wing attacking the opponent's left from behind. The rightmost cohort consisted of ~1100 infantry These organized military tactic and strategies predated the Romans. Click here for our comprehensive article on the Romans. This leaves the generals own escort which would most likely lie to rear of the force and would consist of about 100 men. This important section of Vegetius closes with the tactics to be used in the case of a withdrawal in the face of the enemy. This was a detached unit, immediately behind the font line, capable of fast sideways movement down the length of the line to block any holes which might appear to develop a thrust where there might be a sign of weakness. Byzantine tactics were to immediately collect a force of cavalry from the nearest themes and to trail the invading Saracen army. On a wider front, the Romans used tactics of denying their opponents the means of sustained warfare.
HistoryOnTheNet 2000-2019. If additional protection was needed, men at the rear and on the flanks could also form and locked their shields together. The order to repel cavalry brought about a the following formation.