Before Axial coding: Identifying a central phenomenon, exploring causal Grounded theory is transcending also in the sense that it conceptualizes ((1998) explicitly pointed out that the value of the grounded theory
Mill Valley, CA: The consist of systematic inductive guidelines for collecting and analyzing (1990). Theory is not discovered; rather, theory is constructed by the researcher who views the world through their own particular lens. However, Birks and Mills6 refer to GT as a process by which theory is generated from the analysis of data. indicator for categories and properties. Qualitative and quantitative data generation techniques can be used in a grounded theory study.
The analysis identifies relationships, highlights gaps in the existing data set and may reveal insight into what is not yet known. (p. 5).
Then, concepts and sub-concepts are further defined
Concurrent data analysis and data collection slows through a feedback loop.
in ADTED 550 discussions). Constant comparative analysis is an analytical process used in GT for coding and category development. (1990) Categorical Data Analysis. Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Incidents are identified in the data and coded.6 The initial stage of analysis compares incident to incident in each code. Categories are integrated into a theoretical framework. (Eds).
Newbury Park, CA: Sage. While Strauss and Corbin12 describe theoretical sensitivity as the insight into what is meaningful and of significance in the data for theory development, Birks and Mills6 define theoretical sensitivity as the ability to recognise and extract from the data elements that have relevance for the emerging theory (p. 181). and filling in categories that needed further refinement and development" Funding: The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Naked Statistics. memos to document and enrich the analytical process, to make implicit
Data analysis should happen at the same time as data collection. Coding terminology in evolved GT refers to open (a procedure for developing categories of information), axial (an advanced procedure for interconnecting the categories) and selective coding (procedure for building a storyline from core codes that connects the categories), producing a discursive set of theoretical propositions.6,12,32 Constructivist grounded theorists refer to initial, focused and theoretical coding.9 Birks and Mills6 use the terms initial, intermediate and advanced coding that link to low, medium and high-level conceptual analysis and development. all the data are accounted for in the core categories of the grounded These Australian researchers have written in a way that appeals to the novice researcher. Rather than an engagement in philosophical discussion or a debate of the different genres that can be used in grounded theory, this article illustrates how a framework for a research study design can be used to guide and inform the novice nurse researcher undertaking a study using grounded theory. Handbook of Qualitative lines in its ability not only to generate the theory but also to ground The framework denotes the process is both iterative and dynamic and is not one directional. Grounded theory provides qualitative researchers with guidelines for collecting and analyzing data. Symbolic interactionism addresses the subjective meaning people place on objects, behaviours or events based on what they believe is true.19,20 Constructivist GT, the third genre developed and explicated by Charmaz, a symbolic interactionist, has its roots in constructivism.8,16 Constructivist GTs methodological underpinnings focus on how participants construct meaning in relation to the area of inquiry.16 A constructivist co-constructs experience and meanings with participants.21 While there are commonalities across all genres of GT, there are factors that distinguish differences between the approaches including the philosophical position of the researcher; the use of literature; and the approach to coding, analysis and theory development. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted of indicators, and develops, as it proceeds, a broad range of acceptable With Chegg Study, you can get step-by-step solutions to your questions from an expert in the field. During initial coding, it is important to ask what is this data a study of.18 What does the data assume, suggest or pronounce and from whose point of view does this data come, whom does it represent or whose thoughts are they?.16 What collectively might it represent? Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods
ORCID iD: Ylona Chun Tie The researcher also needs to write analytic and self-reflective lead to "refining and specifying any borrowed extant concepts" Initial coding categorises and assigns meaning to the data, comparing incident-to-incident, labelling beginning patterns and beginning to look for comparisons between the codes. of constant comparative analysis. Charmaz10 posits, codes rely on interaction between researchers and their data. Feel like cheating at Statistics? those relationships by searching for confirming and disconfirming examples,
Research procedures: grounded theory, data collection, analysis,
However, understanding how to position oneself philosophically can challenge novice researchers. Codes are then collapsed into categories. A theory must have fit: A grounded theory is faithful to the everyday
Grounded theory has several distinct methodological genres: traditional GT associated with Glaser; evolved GT associated with Strauss, Corbin and Clarke; and constructivist GT associated with Charmaz.6,17 Each variant is an extension and development of the original GT by Glaser and Strauss. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Initial codes are then compared to other codes. The purpose of theoretical sampling is to allow the researcher to follow leads in the data by sampling new participants or material that provides relevant information. diverse or similar evidence indicating the same conceptual categories because it allows core problems and processes to emerge.
While it is important to have an understanding of how a methodology has developed, in order to move forward with research, a novice can align with a grounded theorist and follow an approach to GT. integrating the categories in the axial coding; presenting the conditional The generative nature always takes it beyond the substantive area The grounded Saldaa33 agrees that codes that denote action, which he calls process codes, can be used interchangeably with gerunds (verbs ending in ing). PMC legacy view
priority attention to the data. The coding terms devised by Birks and Mills6 were used for Figure 1; however, these can be altered to reflect the coding terminology used in the respective GT genres selected by the researcher.
a particular situation (Creswell, 1998). predict what will happen, and interpret what is happening in an area
Each of the essential methods and processes that underpin grounded theory are defined in this article. As grounded theory is not a linear process, the framework illustrates the interplay between the essential grounded theory methods and iterative and comparative actions involved. Axial coding is used to create conceptual families from the summaries, followed by selective coding which turns the families into a formal framework with a variable that includes all of the collected data. In GT, researchers may utilise both qualitative and quantitative data as espoused by Glasers dictum; all is data.30 While interviews are a common method of generating data, data sources can include focus groups, questionnaires, surveys, transcripts, letters, government reports, documents, grey literature, music, artefacts, videos, blogs and memos.9 Elicited data are produced by participants in response to, or directed by, the researcher whereas extant data includes data that is already available such as documents and published literature.6,31 While this is one interpretation of how elicited data are generated, other approaches to grounded theory recognise the agency of participants in the co-construction of data with the researcher. In other words, you shouldnt wait until all your data is collected before analyzing it; these methods should be fluid and change if your data uncovers a new theory or potential direction. The analyst is constantly going beyond his data to new problems The primary method of analysis is a continuous coding process. Something kinaesthetic occurs when we are coding; we are mentally and physically active in the process. Where initial coding fractures the data, intermediate coding begins to transform basic data into more abstract concepts allowing the theory to emerge from the data. Grounded theorists interact closely with the data during this phase, continually reassessing meaning to ascertain what is really going on in the data.30 Theoretical saturation ensues when new data analysis does not provide additional material to existing theoretical categories, and the categories are sufficiently explained.6, Birks and Mills6 described advanced coding as the techniques used to facilitate integration of the final grounded theory (p. 177). Please post a comment on our Facebook page. historical, and economic conditions influencing the central phenomenon. Analytical memos consist Others tried to understand by interpreting treatment by care providers and family members. outcomes, Selective coding and theoretical propositions and models, Discussion of theory and contrasts with extant literature.
CRC Standard Mathematical Tables, 31st ed. Although there are probably as many versions of grounded theory as there were grounded theorists (Dey, 1999), all of the versions have the following aspects in common (Charmaz, 2006): In order to say that your research is based in grounded theory you must follow the explicit, sequential guidelines. Birks and Mills6 affirm that diagramming can aid analysis in the intermediate coding phase.
In GT, codes identify social and psychological processes and actions as opposed to themes.
Strauss and Corbin (1998) added two additional features of grounded conditions, specifying strategies, identifying the context and intervening and dimensions of the data. A theory must have relevance: Grounded theory arrives at relevance
A hallmark of GT is concurrent data generation/collection and analysis. its subcategories. What are exactly specific natures of grounded theory? Theoretical coding occurs as the final culminating stage towards achieving a GT.39,40 The purpose of theoretical coding is to integrate the substantive theory.41 Saldaa40 states, theoretical coding integrates and synthesises the categories derived from coding and analysis to now create a theory (p. 224). NEED HELP with a homework problem? Grounded theory requires constant comparative analysis. This process means the researcher will compare incidents in a category with previous incidents, in both the same and different categories.5 Future codes are compared and categories are compared with other categories. FOIA As the research progresses, seminal texts are referred back to time and again as understanding of concepts increases, much like the iterative processes inherent in the conduct of a GT study. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. condition, and delineating the consequences for the central phenomenon This process challenged the traditional method of testing or refining theory through deductive testing.
Subsequent generations of grounded theorists have positioned themselves along a philosophical continuum, from Strauss and Corbins12 theoretical perspective of symbolic interactionism, through to Charmazs16 constructivist perspective. This article offers a framework to assist novice researchers visualise the iterative processes that underpin a GT study. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Codes and categories will be sorted, compared, and contrasted until Participant Observation (fieldwork) and/or focus groups. Initial coding of data is the preliminary step in GT data analysis.6,9 The purpose of initial coding is to start the process of fracturing the data to compare incident to incident and to look for similarities and differences in beginning patterns in the data. Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. The aim of all research is to advance, refine and expand a body of knowledge, establish facts and/or reach new conclusions using systematic inquiry and disciplined methods.1 The research design is the plan or strategy researchers use to answer the research question, which is underpinned by philosophy, methodology and methods.2 Birks3 defines philosophy as a view of the world encompassing the questions and mechanisms for finding answers that inform that view (p. 18). Memos are the storehouse of ideas generated and documented through interacting with data.28 Thus, memos are reflective interpretive pieces that build a historic audit trail to document ideas, events and the thought processes inherent in the research process and developing thinking of the analyst.6 Memos provide detailed records of the researchers thoughts, feelings and intuitive contemplations.6, Lempert29 considers memo writing crucial as memos prompt researchers to analyse and code data and develop codes into categories early in the coding process.
Group comparisons are conceptual: they are proceeded by comparing
In vivo codes are often verbatim quotes from the participants words and are often used as the labels to capture the participants words as representative of a broader concept or process in the data.6 that theory in data . Properties refer to the characteristics that are common to all the concepts in the category and dimensions are the variations of a property.37, At this stage, a core category starts to become evident as developed categories form around a core concept; relationships are identified between categories and the analysis is refined.
This continual comparative iterative process that encompasses GT research sets it apart from a purely descriptive analysis.8, Memo writing is an analytic process considered essential in ensuring quality in grounded theory.6 Stern27 offers the analogy that if data are the building blocks of the developing theory, then memos are the mortar (p. 119). During this process, additional information is sought to saturate categories under development. will also be available for a limited time. Traditional, evolved and constructivist GT genres use different terminology to explain each coding phase (Table 1).
While grounded theory is inherently flexible, it is a complex methodology. Researchers purposively select participants and/or data sources that can answer the research question.5,7,16,21 Concurrent data generation and/or data collection and analysis is fundamental to GT research design.6 The researcher collects, codes and analyses this initial data before further data collection/generation is undertaken. Strauss, A., & Corbin, J.
However, its use isnt limited to qualitative studies; it is a general method that can be applied to many areas of research. Kotz, S.; et al., eds.
Birks and Mills6 provide a contemporary understanding of GT in their book Grounded theory: A Practical Guide. ( 2nd ed.).
Social processes are discovered in the data. Sociology Press. As will be discussed, theoretical sampling then commences from the codes and categories developed from the first data set. However, philosophical perspectives have changed since Glasers positivist version and Strauss and Corbins post-positivism stance.14 Grounded theory has since seen the emergence of additional philosophical perspectives that have influenced a change in methodological development over time.15.