Furman and Catts (1982) present a very usable key to both adults and larvae of medically important flies, particularly in the United States, and James (1947) covers flies that cause myiasis in humans. Previously, phenotypic approaches were employed to derive overall likeness/relationship between genera and subgenera of sand flies in both old and the new world rather than ancestordescendant matches. The middle midgut has specialized cells for buffering the luminal contents in the acidic zone (Figure 4), in addition to those functioning in fluid absorption. (2015) for Australasian fauna; by Blantom and Wirth (1979), Downes and Wirth (1981), Wirth et al. aegypti formosus is the original feral form and is found in large parts of interior Africa. An internationally accepted set of two-letter abbreviations for all mosquito genera is shown in Table I. 4) and have flexion and extension movements when disturbed (Brazil and Brazil, 2015). These adults lack the characteristic cyclorrhaphan middle midgut and the associated luminal low pH. These works were preceded by Carpenter and LaCasse (1955), which contains formal descriptions, biology, and meticulously crafted full-page plates of adults of each species. Two of these, An. Such approaches allowed proliferation of the taxa, specifically at subgeneric level. (1985), and Holbrook et al. Preferred common names of mosquito species are listed by the Entomological Society of America (Bosik, 1997) and by Pittaway (1992). Table 1.2. Molecular genetics is a powerful tool for disentangling the relationship between the geographical and morphological history of subspecies within a species group, the study of phylogeography. However, among all the culicomorphs, the long proboscis of mosquitoes is distinctive. (1988), and Felippe-Bauer et al. a. aegypti is a paler, brownish-black domestic form. Various keys are available for identifying adult flies. It is the primary vector of both DEN and urban YF viruses. pipiens and Cx. The knowledge of Phlebotomine sand-fly systematics has advanced with introduction of new approaches such as, molecular and phylogenetic analysis, multivariate morphometrics, analysis of isozymes and chromosomes and lately mass spectrometry. For males, the study of genitalia, including the length of sperm pump and length, shape and tips of aedeagal ducts, number and localization of spines on gonostyle, non-deciduous hairs and shape of gonocoxite, parameres and epandrial lobes (=lateral lobes) are important for identification (Galati, 2018). The Diptera evolved along two major lines: an assemblage (early Nematocera) of suborders corresponding to the mosquitoes, including the basal Diptera, and the suborder Brachycera that includes the most evolved flies (Cyclorrhapha). A cold-hardy, egg-diapausing strain of this mosquito has been carried from northern Japan to other parts of the world by the trade in used automobile and truck tires. External structures are potentially useful for identification and deserve additional studies; detailed description of larvae and pupae of the important species Ny. Average flight range of sand flies i.e., 1.5km/day, have also allowed speculating about intra-specific and inter-specific variations within subgenera and populations. Recent cladistic analysis of morphological and nucleotide-sequence data supports the idea that the Anophelinae are only distantly related to the other two subfamilies and that the Toxorhynchitinae do not merit subfamily status (Harbach and Kitching, 1998). Mosquitoes historically influenced human activities more than any other insect group, not only for their constant nuisance, but more importantly for their role in the transmission of pathogens to humans and animals (Ayala and Coluzzi, 2005; White et al., 2011). In most of its range in the southern United States, Ae. Because of their morphological similarity, they are called cryptic species. Cipriano Foxi, Ciriaco Ligios, in Encyclopedia of Infection and Immunity, 2022. It was largely confined to Asia, where it occurs in tropical and subtropical rural settings. By continuing you agree to the use of cookies. gambiae.
Two long series of valuable papers of international scope on mosquito taxonomy and distribution have been published in the journals Contributions of the American Entomological Institute: Contributions to the Mosquito Fauna of Southeast Asia and Mosquito Studies. (1979), which contains keys to larvae and adults of Canada, plates of taxonomic structures for each species, distribution maps, and biological information; and Darsie and Ward (1981), which covers all of North America north of Mexico and has illustrated keys and distribution maps. 2. It is spotted with blackish spots especially on the wings It comes from a little slender eel-like worm of a dirty white colour, swimming in stagnating waters by a wriggling motion. The genus Culicoides was later created by Latreille in 1809. Wood and Borkent (1989) provide an overview of nematoceran phylogeny and classification. Fig. Bacillus thuringiensis was the first bacterium described to have insecticidal activity. Joshua R. Ginsberg, in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (Second Edition), 2013.
Mitochondrial DNA of several vectors of L. major around the Mediterranean was studied to understand phylogeography and coevolution of protozoa and sand flies (Esseghir et al., 1997). Nonhematophagous adults store liquid food (nectar or decay products) in their crops. globocoxitus and Cx. Digestive events in Cyclorrhapha larvae are exemplified by larvae of the housefly Musca domestica. In a pond mesocosm study, Bti had a negative effect on the abundance of chironomid larvae only for application rates 1.52 times superior to the operational rate used for mosquito control, with differential effects according to the considered subfamily. a. aegypti as the subspecies Ae. a. formosus, it utilizes both rain-filled and hand-filled containers. For identification of taxa outside the Nearctic Region, students should refer to Lindner's (1949) series on Palearctic Diptera and to Zumpt (1965) for Old World myiasis-causing flies. After the dispersed material is ingested, starch digestion is accomplished primarily in the crop by the action of salivary amylase. Mosquitoes (Diptera, Nematocera: Culicidae) belong to a monophyletic group containing about 3600 species (Wilkerson et al., 2015) with cosmopolitan distribution, to which belong 44 genera and 145 sub-genera (Wood and Borkent, 1989; Miller et al., 1997; Harbach and Kitching, 1998; Harbach, 2007). The medically most important taxa worldwide are the temperate species Cx. That such cryptic species can be found in such a well-studied group suggests that further genetic studies of mammalian phylogenies will yield some surprises. It occurs mainly in coastal regions of Africa and is distributed throughout much of southern Asia and most warmer parts of the New World, including the southern United States. The two show relatively good separation of diet: whereas both eat mostly the dipteran suborder Nematocera, the dominant prey groups for the 45-kHz phonic type were in the families Psychodidae, Anisopodidae, and Muscidae, while the families Chironomidae and Ceratopogonidae were the main prey groups of bats of the 55-kHz phonic type. Similarly, translocation of southern quolls to the north to augment that population could be disastrous. Adult Aedes aegypti midgut surface is covered in a large proportion by tubular bilayers with diameter fourfold smaller than microvilli. These studies will provide a more accurate framework to elucidate distribution, ecology, phenology, biting habits, vector capacity and other characteristics of harmful species. Sand flies are small (length 23mm) hairy Diptera, constituting Phlebotominae in Psychodidae, which belongs to suborder Psychodomorpha, one of eight orders in Diptera; due mostly to their long and multiarticulate antennae,2 this family used to be included in Nematocera, now considered as a paraphyletic group. Specialists have overcome some of these problems by using chromosome banding patterns, isozyme profiles, or DNA probes and DNA restriction fragment patterns to distinguish these species from one another. aegypti. Table 1. The two show relatively good separation of diet: whereas both eat mostly the dipteran suborder, Suborder Brachycera, Infraorder Tabanomorpha. For females, shape of spermathecae and ducts (individual and common) and cibarial teeth are very important. quinquefasciatus (= fatigans), the southern house mosquito. A thorough treatment of North American genera was presented by Stone (1981).
bromeliae, and Ae. Their exochorium present structures not yet well studied in many species, probably due to fragility of eggs (J. Santos-Mallet pers.
Furthermore, although a number of very good systematic studies exist, a refined taxonomy using morphological and genetic techniques is essential to understand the relationships between Culicoides species. Phlebotomine Sand Flies (Diptera, Psychodidae, Phlebotominae), Leishmaniasis: an overview of evolution, classification, distribution, and historical aspects of parasite and its vector, Pathogenesis, Treatment and Prevention of Leishmaniasis, Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (Second Edition), ) is one of the most common bats in Europe, and one of the best studied. In 2003, Galati recognized 464 species of new world Neotropical Phlebotomine sandflies that classify 23 genera, 20 subgenera, 3 species groups, and 28 series and further reorganized Phlebotominae subfamily into two tribes namely, Hertigiini and Phlebotomini (Galati, 2003).
(2017) and thoroughly described by Galati (2018). It is estimated that they originated in the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic Era, between 200 and 150million years ago (Reidenbach et al., 2009). were used to distinguish taxa, and were prominent during the first period. In wetlands where Bti was aerially applied, indirect effects on predatory insects which may have resulted from food shortage due to mosquito larvae mortality were not significant. Sand flies are placed in Nematocera (sub-order) of Diptera (order) that belongs to the (subfamily) of Phlebotominae in Psychodidae (family). To date, the genus Culicoides counts over 1340 species (Borkent, 2016a) of which about 60 are implicated as vectors of pathogens and parasites to humans and livestock (Borkent, 2004). These methods for identification are not yet simple enough, or widely enough available, to be used routinely in field work. The Ceratopogonidae family is divided into four subfamilies: Leptoconopinae (2 genera), Forcipomyiinae (2 genera), Dasyheleinae (1 genus) and Ceratopogoninae (107 genera). The Cx. It also has gained a foothold in several other parts of the world. Larvae and pupae (indicated by red arrows) of Lutzomyia longipalpis. Yet, it is likely that if a female northern quoll were placed in a breeding center with a southern male, because of their great size difference, the male would view the female as dinner, not as a potential mate. The most recent large treatment of a major geographic area is the 12-volume catalog on the Australasian Region, edited by Debenham, Hicks, Lee, and others (19801989). Keys to the mosquito genera worldwide were provided by Mattingly (1971). (1989) is adequate for identification of most North American Diptera to the family level. These abbreviations appear in most mosquito publications and are used in this chapter. The subgeneric classification is based almost exclusively on the morphology of adults and counts 31 subgenera (Harrup et al., 2015). New discoveries do not require going to the ends of the earth. The classification of all mosquitoes into 3 subfamilies, 10 tribes of Culicinae, and 38 genera is based on Knight and Stone (1977). (2007), Bellis (2013), and Bellis et al. (1981b) and followed by Borror et al. Several small characteristics distinguish the members of this genus from the other ones of the Ceratopogonidae family: (i) presence of two small humeral pits near the front edge of the thorax, (ii) empodium vestigial or extremely small between tarsal claws, which are the same size and toothless, (iii) two small and narrow radial cells at the end of radial vein in the wings. Copyright 2022 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. In parentheses are the two-letter generic abbreviations recognized by the American Mosquito Control Association and used in several journals and books. The larvicidal activity of these isolates was very low, so they could not be used to control mosquitoes (Table 1). The key in Borror et al. This would ease management concerns as the northern population is classified as endangered, whereas the southern population is relatively more common. Some handbooks include keys to pupae, and the handbook for Illinois (Ross and Horsfall, 1965) is noteworthy in particular for its egg keys. Table 1.1. The Ceratopogonidae counts over 6200 species comprised in 112 extant genera (Borkent, 2016a,b). Cx. Adults of Phlebotomus papatasi in copula. aegypti, the yellow fever mosquito, has a worldwide distribution in the tropics and subtropics. In the British Isles it was found that the bat used two frequencies to echolocate, which led scientists to classify these populations as either the 45- or 55-kHz phonic type. (2016) revised the history of classification, evolution and dispersal of Leishmania and sand flies. Fig. These include many fine handbooks that also present biological and medical information on individual species. FOSTER, EDWARD D. WALKER, in Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 2002. Culicidae consists of about 3200 recognized species. If the two mainland populations constitute one ESU while the Tasmanian population constitutes a different ESU, then one management solution would be to manage the mainland and island populations separately. They fuse and branch forming bundles that seem to originate in the intercellular crypts and seem to be fused with the microvillar surface (Ziegler et al., 2000). gambiae and An. Taxonomic history of sand fly can be fragmented into two distinct periods. Anophelinae and Toxorhynchitinae sometimes are considered to be primitive groups; other authorities view them as specialized derivations of some Culicinae-type ancestor. Because morphological, geographic, and genetic data frequently tell different stories (as in the striped rabbit e.g., above), an understanding and reconciliation of these data are critical to understanding both the evolution and conservation of mammals. Two recent studies have provided further evidence that these two phonic types are, indeed, good species. The suborder Nematocera consists of four important families of bloodsucking insects: mosquitoes (Culicidae), blackflies (Simuliidae), biting midges (Ceratopogonidae), and sandflies (Phlebotominae) as one subfamily of moth flies (Psychodidae). The puzzling structures of A. aegypti should be further studied to discover their relationships with digestion. Ae. Ae. Larvae are wormlike and have distinct black head, three thoracic and nine abdominal segments; first instar larvae have two posterior long setae, and four are (in most species) present in the other three instars3 (Figs. At present, Phlebotominae is subdivided into six genera on the basis of traditional and practical approach, out of which three genera represent the old world namely, Phlebotomus comprised of 13 subgenera, 10 subgenera of Sergentomyia, and 4 species from Chinius (Table 1.1). Finally, the material released by bacteria is digested in the posterior midgut, as is observed in the whole midgut of insects of other taxa. Several brightly marked Aedes species in the large subgenus Stegomyia are medically important, including Aedes aegypti and Ae. Current culicid classification (Table I) recognizes three subfamilies: Anophelinae, Culicinae, and Toxorhynchitinae. Some useful works for the Culicoides identification at species level are provided by Khamala and Kettle (1971), Boorman and Dipeolu (1979), Glick (1990), and Meiswinkel (1995) for Afrotropical fauna; by Tokunaga (1962), Dyce et al. The quoll occurs on Tasmania and on the mainland in two distinct populations, one in the north and one in the south. Right male. Countercurrent fluxes occur in the posterior midgut powered by secretion of fluid in the distal part of the posterior midgut and its absorption back in middle midgut. Nectar ingested by mosquitoes (males and females) is stored in the crop, and is digested and absorbed at the anterior midgut. The latter envelop the microvilli before extending into the lumen in structures that may resemble the tubular membrane bilayers of A. aegypti (see Section 4.5.8.2.5 and Figure 13). The superfamily Culicoidea comprises the Dixidae, Corethrellidae, Chaoboridae, and Culicidae, the second and fourth of which feed on vertebrate blood. polynesiensis and Ae. arabiensis tends to occur in somewhat drier regions than does An. Cyclorrhaphan adults, except for a few blood-suckers, feed mainly on liquids associated with decaying material (rich in bacteria) in a way similar to housefly M. domestica adults. Because of their morphological similarity, they are called cryptic species. albopictus has replaced Ae. gambiae complex of Africa consists of six species. albopictus. They are closely related to the Chironomidae (commonly known as non-biting midges) but can be easily distinguished from them by the presence of biting mouthparts, short forelegs, wings kept flat on the abdomen and folded like a closed scissor when the insect is resting, characteristic wing venation and by the lack of the two thoracic and abdominal pseudopods in the larvae. Genetic evidence suggests, however, that despite their size differences, which may be as much as 50%, the two mainland populations are more closely related to one another, while the Tasmanian population is genetically divergent. Eggs are oval or ellipsoid (0.3 to 0.5mm in length/0.07 to 0.15mm width); when laid, they are whitened or yellowed, and in hours become dark brown (Brazil and Brazil, 2015). They are considered absent only in Antarctica and in few islands. A catalog of the Diptera of America north of Mexico is provided by Stone et al. The first established population was detected in Texas in 1985. This occurred because of the high level of mosquitocidal activity of this strain. A review of molecular taxonomy studies on sand flies, comparing isoenzymes, cuticular hydrocarbons and DNA sequences (Depaquit, 2014) emphasized the concentration on medically important species; those techniques were indicated as less laborious and probably more productive and useful than morphology, mostly if utilized with due care. The largest number remaining to be discovered probably inhabits tropical rain forests, where faunas are more diverse but less well surveyed than temperate regions. In contrast, results from experiments performed in temporary freshwater ponds showed that Bti did not adversely affect the density or biomass of various invertebrate groups, nor the taxonomic richness of benthic invertebrate communities. Two recent studies have provided further evidence that these two phonic types are, indeed, good species. aegypti, occupies the same kinds of containers, and also transmits DEN virus. ROBERT D. HALL, REID R. GERHARDT, in Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 2002. W.R. Terra, C. Ferreira, in Comprehensive Molecular Insect Science, 2005. Other important members of the subgenus Stegomyia include Ae. This work provides the taxonomic history and current standing of all recognized species, their distributions by country, and references to the general literature and to taxonomic works for all regions of the world. Genera and subgenera of the new world sandflies. Because roosts consisted of bats of a single phonic type, to these scientists it was suggested that the phonic types represented sympatric, but distinct, species. Ae. This taxonomic scheme is essentially that proposed by McAlpine et al. Larvae of some taxa of non-target Nematocera such as Chironomidae have been shown to be susceptible to Bti, and there are indications that non-target organisms may be impacted by Bti-containing larvicides in wetlands. Original systematic studies of mosquitoes are published in several scientific journals, but the one devoted solely to this subject, Mosquito Systematics, was subsumed under the Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association in 1995. (2019). The first strains of B. sphaericus to be active against mosquito larvae were isolated from moribund mosquito larvae (Kellen et al., 1965). molestus is a name sometimes applied to a variant of Cx. As reported by Borkent (2004), the Culicoides fauna of some regions of the world has been poorly studied, so that many species remain to be described. It has since spread through much of the southern, central, and eastern United States, including foci in the upper Midwest, much farther north than the nondiapausing Ae. (1965). In Africa it has become independent of rain, developing in hand-filled water jars without regard to season. The first description of a species of Culicoides dates back to 1713 by W. Derham, Rector of the University of Upminster in Essex in England, in his work entitled Physico-Theology: or a demonstration of the being and attributes of God, from His Work of Creation and dedicated to the Archbishop of Canterbury. The family Culicidae, derived from culex, the Latin name for gnat, is a member of one of the main stocks of Nematocera, the infraorder Culicomorpha. 1. Although these characteristics are observed in most nonbrachyceran larvae, the more evolved of these larvae may show reduction in size of midgut caeca (e.g., Culicidae). Toxorhynchitines are all predaceous as larvae, are unusually large, and have a curved proboscis suited for feeding on only nectar. Whereas the second period focused on internal structures such as, spermathecae and pharynx descriptions (Theodor, 1958). Keys for the identification of species of restricted geographical regions are available for most states, provinces, and many countries throughout the world. TABLE III. The Ceratopogonidae are a family of small flies (generally 34mm in length) belonging to the order Diptera, Suborder Nematocera, infraorder Culicomorpha and superfamily Chironomoidea. 4. The immature stages of Ceratopogonidae are poorly known, but the larvae of many genera, including Culicoides, have been described by Kettle and Lawson (1952), Blantom and Wirth (1979), and Glukhova (1979, 1989). pseudoscutellaris, which transmit lymphatic filariasis in South Pacific islands. Tribe Hertigiini was also differentiated into two subtribes of Hertigiina and Idiophlebotomina. It has adapted to some domestic situations in Africa, where it develops in rain-filled containers. We use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content and ads. (2000) for Nearctic fauna; by Aitken et al. luteoceophalus, which transmit YF virus in parts of Africa, and Ae. Wing transversal veins are restricted to basal half and all ramifications of vein Rs (R2-R4) reach the border of the wing. Other structures potentially useful were listed by Galati et al. pipiens complex is a ubiquitous group of closely related domestic and peridomestic species. Blood, which is ingested only by females, passes to the posterior midgut, where it is digested and absorbed (Billingsley, 1990; Terra and Ferreira, 1994). Anopheline eggs bear characteristic floats, their larvae lack air tubes, and adults have elongate palps in both sexes. In the last decades, molecular analyses and phylogenetic studies have helped to discriminate the morphologically cryptic species belonging to a complex of similar species, such as Culicoides variipennis complex, Culicoides obsoletus complex and Culicoides pulicaris complex (Holbrook et al., 2000; Meiswinkel et al., 2004; Nolan et al., 2007; Nielsen and Kristensen, 2015). Taxonomic Classification and Families of Diptera of Interest to Medical and Veterinary Entomologists.
These ingest food rich in bacteria. The identification of the SSII-1 strain in India (Singer, 1973) renewed interest in the use of this species as a biological control agent. In a 6-year survey performed in the River Dallven floodplain (Central Sweden), no significant effect of flood-water mosquito control using aerial application of Bti was shown on the production of emerging insects, nor on chironomid species richness and production. In 2014, Galati proposed a classification in which Phlebotomini tribe included 931 species, out of which 916 species were validated and 15 species are of uncertain taxonomic status altogether, classified under six subtribes (Phlebotomina, Australo-phlebotomina, Brumptomyiina, Sergentomyiina, Lutzomyiina, and Psychodopygina). aegypti as the predominant mosquito in artificial containers in suburban and rural environments. Akhoundi et al. (1974), Downes and Wirth (1981), de Meillon and Wirth (1991), and Borkent and Spinelli (2007). It is considered the most specialized of biting mouthparts among Nematocera and indicates a long and close association of mosquitoes with vertebrate animals. More than 800 sand fly species are recognized with approximately 464 of them constituting new world species and 375 representing the oldworld species (Perfilev, 1968). The Nematocera are typified by mosquitoes and other flies with conspicuously long antennae. ScienceDirect is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. ScienceDirect is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. www.who.int/neglected_diseases/vector_ecology/mosquito-borne-diseases/en, Encyclopedia of Toxicology (Third Edition), The Diptera evolved along two major lines: an assemblage (early, Billingsley, 1990; Terra and Ferreira, 1994, The order Diptera is divided by most authorities into two suborders: the, Biting Midges (Ceratopogonidae, Culicoides), mm in length) belonging to the order Diptera, Suborder, the Latin name for gnat, is a member of one of the main stocks of, Goldberg and Margalit, 1977; de Barjac, 1978, ) opened up the possibility of using microorganisms to control Diptera, Based on the lethal concentration 50% (LC, Based on the deduced amino-acid sequences, when known (see also.