180),8Theophilus of Antioch (176-186 AD),9Clement of Alexandria (c. 193-220),10Tertullian (198-220 AD),11Origen (225-254),12and Eusebius. Relating to the cultures of Greece or Rome.
Colossae seems to have been sparsely populated by about 400 AD, then attacked by Muslims in the 7th century AD and totally destroyed in the 12th century AD.
1 present, visitors during imprisonment, the nature of the false teaching Online: https://www.bibleodyssey.org:443/en/places/main-articles/colossae, Alan H. Cadwallader So far no excavations have been carried out in Colossae. In her worship, as well as in that of Bacchus, both sexes practised every species of debauchery in speech and action, with a frantic rage which they pretended was occasioned by the inspiration of the deities whom they worshipped. He includes neither Old Testament
At one point in the fourth or third letter (1:7-8; 4:12-13).
Christmas Incarnation The subsequent Phrygian period (1200600 BCE) left a legacy in peoples names, in the design of funeral monuments, and in certain features of its religious makeup (including the worship of the Phrygian nature-god Mn). that can be explained by Paul's two-fold role as both "an apologist for Donations Browse by subject - click on a letter below. The cello-shape of the biconical mound (the locally designated twin peaks) matches the fortress-city design of Hittite settlements and originally covered almost thirty acres. The best source for information on the Royal Road is David French, "Pre- Jacob
Apostle Paul
| Terms of Use city in the Lycus River valley, about 100 miles east of the great, (Col 1:15). You can purchase one of Dr. Wilson's complete Bible studies in PDF, Kindle, or paperback format.
theology than Paul's "accepted" letters. Arguments for one place According to Xenophon, a Greek historian from the 4th century BC, Colossae was one of the six big cities of Phrygia. Since no mention of the earthquake is found in Colossians, the letter was probably written before the destructive 60 AD or so earthquake, soon after Paul arrived in Rome.
Copyright 2022, Society of Biblical Literature It is a salutary reminder that a citys existence and prosperity is not necessarily measured by notice in Roman writers hundreds of miles away.
It's said that St. Paul had visited the city where he wrote his Epistle to the Colossians.
The
Over 160 names of Colossian inhabitants are known.
| Donate, https://www.bibleodyssey.org:443/en/places/main-articles/colossae, Colossians: Authorship, Rhetoric and Code, Fragments of Colossae: Sifting through the Traces, The First Urban Churches 5: Colossae, Hierapolis, and Laodicea. and. He has published many articles and chapters on Colossae, including several inscriptions found at or near the site.
In his letter to He is a faithful minister of Christ on your behalf, 12giving thanks to the Father, who has enabled[a]you[b]to share in the inheritance of the saints in the light. Finally, the city was abandoned around 8th century AD when its citizens moved to a site called Chonae near todays center of Honaz district. the known universe. [cited 21 Jul 2022]. Short written texts, generally inscribed on stone or clay and frequently recording an event or dedicating an object.
wool, known as "Colossian wool." 2018 ColdWater Media, Inc. Drive Thru History All rights reserved. Before the Common Era; a notation used in place of B.C. overtones, since Paul says that they weren't "holding fast to the Head"(2:19).
Whoever they were, Paul's prescription is a focus Ephesians and Philippians) on the grounds of style and a more advanced
Ephesus, about 100 miles west of Colossae from 53 to 55 AD. located.
Book of Enoch for visions). Relating to the Byzantine empire, which ruled the Eastern Mediterranean from the fifth century CE to 1453; its capital was Byzantium (modern Istanbul). Hence as the Son of God came into the world to destroy the works of the devil, it appeared, in the eye of his Apostle, a matter of great importance to carry the light of the Gospel into countries where these abominable impurities were not only practised, but even dignified with the honourable appellation of religious worship; especially as nothing but the heaven-descended light of the Gospel could dispel such a pernicious infatuation. Used by Colossae is difficult to pin down exactly. 2 Peter, Jude from Colossians and Philemon Bible Study.
Theophilus of Antioch (176-186 AD), Ad Autolycum earthquake that destroyed Laodicea in 60-61 AD.2Laodicea was rebuilt quickly. 3. The church in Colossae and the Lycus Valley apparently was established while Paul was living in Ephesus around 55 AD (Acts 19:10). However, a recent pottery survey has demonstrated continuous occupation from the Late Chalcolithic Age (3500 BCE) to the late Byzantine period (1200 CE). values. But Speaking around in the early 50s AD. "prison epistles.". Several known varieties of Roman period coins of Colossae bear the name of the city, Roman officials, and various gods, including Artemis, Helios, Dionysis, Demos, Boule, Tyche, Isis, Serapis, and a local river god.
been widely debated. from other Pauline epistles, it includes the Pauline touch through and
Although Colossae was possibly the smallest of the three cities in the valley, the letter was sent to the church there because of the personal connections of Paul to Epaphras, Philemon, and Onesimus, and because Onesimus was returning to Philemon in Colossae with Tychius (Colossians 4:7-9; Philemon 10). ("before Christ") for years before the current calendar era. cosmopolitan capital city of Ephesus, located in the Roman province of Resurrection Origen of Alexandria, De Principiis 1.5 (Col. 1:15).
Materials from the site and ancient references demonstrate that Colossae shared similarities with other cities in Asia minor during the Roman period, using Greek as the main language, having the typical building found in cities, issuing its own coinage, practicing polytheism, and living life according to typical Roman social and cultural norms.
Luke
Far more than merely a historical source about Christians in Colossae, the epistle also warned against heresies of religious syncretism, or combining and replacing beliefs of Christianity with other religions or worldviews (Colossians 2:8-23).
Contact Us remains: During which of his prison periods was the letter written? of Jewish piety mixed with local folk belief, perhaps with Christian Colossians was written by the Apostle Paul himself. John's Letters
written. Rebuild & Renew: Post-Exilic Books Copyrights 19902021 All Rights Reserved by Burak Sansal. Colossae resented the rise of Laodikeia as the leading city of the Lycus Valley, even calling Laodikeia the lawless mob in one of the citys early Byzantine writings (St Michael of Chonai), a deliberate false pun on the name laos + dikaios (righteous people). As we read 15. 5.
James
2to Apphia our sister, to Archippus our fellow soldier, and to the church in your house: 16Therefore do not let anyone condemn you in matters of food and drink or of observing festivals, new moons, or sabbaths.
The major views tend to cluster around four Jesus and the Kingdom Listening for God's Voice A book of the compiled lessons is available in both, Beginning the Journey (for new Christians), See legal, copyright, and reprint information, My books are available in paperback and Kindle from Amazon, Paul's description of their conversion in Therefore, the presence of multiple ethnic groups and religions at Colossae as described by Paul is also attested from several other sources. Since It seems that Colossae was combining a manufactured Greek origin of its name with the memory of the greatest statue of Helios in the ancient world (at Rhodes), to promote itself as a colossus.. 14. (Ps 120-135) Songs of Ascent
Arnold's position is endorsed by Moo, Colossians, pp. 7This you learned from Epaphras, our beloved fellow servant. authorship date the Letter to the Colossians during Paul's first This may be related to repairs done to the city after the earthquake around 60 AD which did significant damage to the cities in the valley. A religious work of art often depicting a religious figure, as in a painting.
Mark The Lycus Valley is prone to seismic activity, being one of the epicenters for the Anatolian conjunction of the Eurasian, African, and Arabian Plates.
the Euphrates and on to Persia in the East.1.
Gentile Christians, the heresy that Paul was fighting seems to have his second missionary journey, he didn't found the church at Colossae -- directly. Lamb of God Each of these cities had Christian
tell (acropolis or mound) of the city has not been excavated, though the
, the Roman imperial cult, and Judaism. 8-19 interprets the heresy in mainly So far as style goes, the vocabulary of Colossians Although the acropolis and main part of the city were located south of the Lycus River, investigations suggest that at one point Colossae actually occupied both sides of the river. Roman coins with the name of the city Colossae range in date from about 117-276 AD, but coins from as early as the 2nd century BC are also known (Cadwallader and Trainor, Colossae in Space and Time: Linking to an Ancient City). Philippians Following Alexander the Greats conquests in the late fourth century BCE, Colossae fairly rapidly adopted Hellenistic conventions and culture but lost its preeminent status in the Lycus Valley to Laodicea and Hierapolis. The arguments positing a different author than Paul are However, in recent years it has become widely
known for its flourishing textile industry and high-quality dark red 11. Jewish roots, as is discussed below.
We know that Antiochus III had from a variety of mystical Judaism, that tended to denigrate these Three Moses
January 7, 2019 By Titus Kennedy Leave a Comment. be blessed with a greater knowledge of Christ, you'll also get some Pauls letter to Colossae, addressed to the church in that area with special mention of certain Christians, demonstrates that Christianity had spread to the Lycus Valley by the middle of the 1st century AD. Inscriptions, coins, and artwork from the ancient site show the Hellenistic and Roman character of people living at Colossae. Book of Jubilees for placation of angels and asceticism; cf. Used by Permission. Smaller waterways fostered the cultivation of olives, vines, timber, and fruit trees but were also crucial in the citys most famous product, textiles.
permission. only hinted at in Scripture (1 Corinthians 15:32; 2 Corinthians 1:8), so Early Church: Acts1-12 Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. their language in a Christian sense, in order to show that the problems church, has come to Paul's place of imprisonment. Ancient site of Colossae is located 25 kilometers (15 miles) east of Denizli province in Turkey, and 2 kilometers north of Honaz district.
Sitemap, Free In the 1st century AD, Pliny wrote about the purple wool of that Colossae was famous for, made with a dye from the cyclamen flower, and the Latin word collossinus (purple wool) seems to be derived from the name of the city (Pliny, Natural History). to which they unsuccessfully sought an answer elsewhere found their The Early Church Gideon great Persian Royal Road that ran from Ephesus and Sardis in the West to 16.
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A white marble pedestal records honors for a man named Korymbos from thirty of his compatriots; Korymbos had apparently financed the repair of the baths and the extension of the hydraulic infrastructure of the city. purport to solve.
Just what is the "Colossian heresy"?
Richard Watson's Biblical & Theological Dictionary. Paul had been preaching in the "big city" of The tell or acropolis of the Colossae has not been Seventeenth-century European visitors were unimpressed because, unlike Ephesus or its neighbors Laodicea and Hierapolis (Col 2:1, Col 4:13, Col 4:15-16), so few monuments remained from ancient Colossae.
However, surface surveys and discoveries at the site have yielded around 30 inscriptions, over 150 coins, and the identification of a few structures (Cadwallader, Revisiting Calder on Colossae; Yamauchi, Archaeology of New Testament Cities in Western Asia Minor). But some sources deny that he actually visited the city, saying that one of St. Paul's followers founded the Church at Colossae.
In about 481 BC, when Xerxes marched to Sardis on his way to Greece and the famous battle of Thermopylae, he made a stop in Colossae (Herodotus, Histories). Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window), Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window). https://www.studylight.org/dictionaries/eng/wtd/c/colosse.html. 1 Peter 18Wives, be subject to your husbands, as is fitting in the Lord.19Husbands, love your wives and never treat them harshly.20Childr View more. Phrygia is the name of the region in which Colossae is located.
Rules for Christian Households However, about thirty-six inscriptions related to the site, along with seventy-six different types of bronze coinsmost dated to the second and third centurieshave challenged this assumption. 18Do not let anyone disqualify you, insisting on self-abasement and worship of angels, dwelling on visions, puffed up without cause by a human way of thinking. In the modern era, this reference was combined with the dearth of monumental remains at Colossae to conjure an interpretation that the city was completely destroyed or at least rendered terminal by the earthquake.
Various scholars have argued for his writing it during imprisonments at Watercolors Paul writes a letter to the Colossians designed to expose and stop the Papyrus 46, from 200 AD or earlier and found in distant Egypt, is a copy of Colossians that has preserved almost the entire letter, indicating the antiquity and authenticity of the Letter to the Colossians. exempted from taxation for 10 years. 1 & 2 Timothy When Paul finally wrote the letter to the Colossians, he was imprisoned, perhaps in in Caesarea, but more likely in Rome (Acts 28:30-31). an apostle of Christ Jesus"(1:1). Of these cities, however, Laodicea was the greatest, for it was the metropolis of Phrygia, though Colosse is said to have been a great and wealthy place. The other two divisions are the Torah (Pentateuch) and Nevi'im (Prophets); together the three divisions create the acronym Tanakh, the Jewish term for the Hebrew Bible. While possible, an Ephesian imprisonment is Gnostic elements were present in Asia Minor at the time Colossians was Do not put this on a website.
That makes Gnostic terms.
cities in the Lycus Valley -- along with Laodicea (12 miles west) and David, Life of 1:23. Vol. Today, however, nothing remains of Colossae above ground. It is also possible that there was a much larger Christian community in Colossae at that time, but by around 90 AD and the writing of Revelation it had shifted to the major urban center of Laodicea, perhaps as a result of the earthquake in the region (Revelation 1:11; Colossians 4:13-16). his co-worker Tychicus (4:7-8). Christianity to the intellectual world of paganism," as well as Tertullian, De Praescriptione, c. 7; On the Resurrection of defending the gospel within the church.
been the first to meet his pagan opponents on their own ground and use The third division of the Jewish canon, also called by the Hebrew name Ketuvim. excavated.
London: Oliphants, 1974), pp. This is probably the same earthquake that That this salutary purpose might be effectually accomplished, Paul, accompanied by Silas and Timothy, went at different times into Phrygia, and preached the Gospel in many cities of that country with great success; but it is thought by many persons, that the Epistle to the Colossians contains internal marks of his never having been at Colosse when he wrote it.
The inhabitants of Phrygia, says Dr. Macknight, were famous for the worship of Bacchus, and Cybele the mother of the gods; whence the latter was called Phrygia mater, by way of eminence. Bruce comments: "As apologist to the Gentiles, he may have It has similarities -- and probably quite diverse -- especially in light of the nearby highway. 19.
Great Prayers
Hittite culture valued mountains and waterboth are lavishly supplied at Colossae. The city later developed into a leading Byzantine ecclesiastical center, surviving castigation for its veneration of angels (see Col 2:18) and become hailed for the honoring of Saint Michael during the battle over icons in the eighth and ninth centuries. The city had a theatre on the east side, a necropolis/cemetery on the north side of the river, baths, a defensive wall, a stone lined pit on the west perhaps used as a silo, a Byzantine church, and what appeared to be a cardo lined with columns. ensured that the Colossians were exposed to the latest ideas, which then A broad, diverse group of nations ruled by the government of a single nation. But after the north-south road was Philemon, Paul speaks of Epaphras as "my fellow prisoner in Christ Galatians Additionally, the large sum confiscated by proconsul Flacus in Laodicea about 62 BC from the Temple tax suggests a significant population of Jews in the Lycus valley (Cicero, Pro Flacco). From the baths at Colossae, which were probably attached to a gymnasium, a Greek inscription appears to list many citizens from the 1st and 2nd centuries, with a section honoring a contributor named Korumbos who gave money for repairs (Cadwallader and Trainor, Colossae in Space and Time: Linking to an Ancient City). During the Persian period (550330 BCE), Colossae was the city center of a western borderland district (called a satrapy). 16And when this letter has been read among you, have it read also in the church of the Laodiceans; and see that you read also the letter from Laodicea.
Pertaining to the cosmos, i.e. Laodicea, Hierapolis, and Colosse, were at no great distance from each other; which accounts for the Apostle Paul, when writing to his Christian brethren in the latter of these places, mentioning them all in connection with each other, Colossians 4:13 . Copyright StatementThese files are public domain.Text Courtesy of BibleSupport.com. 7 Last Words of Christ Photo copyright by HolyLandPhotos.org. One recent inscription in particular seems finally to have shelved the misconception about Colossaes destruction. Colossians seems to have been written with two
Ephesus (c. 52-55 AD),14Caesarea (c. 57-59 AD), and Rome (c. 60-62 AD). Gentile Christians' faith in Christ in favor of the claims of Judaism.
in Phrygia and Lydia, Antiochus III ordered that Jewish families be
No doubt, Epaphras has come to consult with Paul & 2 Thessalonians My books are available in paperback and Kindle from Amazon. terms more appropriate to Gentiles, rather than to Jews (1:12, 21), He mentions the mystery revealed "among Tacitus, Annals 14.27. Glorious Kingdom, The or another are based on the best fit of circumstances, companions these. Therefore, a considerable population of Jews, along with synagogues, would have been present in the area during the 1st century AD. off recently.
between the lines in 2:8-25 we can begin to discern its shape. 13. Discipleship Lessons 11In that renewal there is no longer Greek and Jew, circumcised and uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave and free; but Christ is all and in all! Alan H. Cadwallader, "Colossae", n.p.
Formal Roman control was established in 129 BCE with Colossae as part of the province of Asia. A single copy of this article is free. While Paul had probably passed through Colossae on Letter to the Colossians has been accepted at face value as from "Paul, 13For I testify for him that he has worked hard for you and for those in Laodicea and in Hierapolis.
One particular earthquake, in 60 CE, gained the attention of the Roman historian Tacitus (Annals 14.27). Bibliography InformationWatson, Richard. Wright (Colossians, pp. 1 Corinthians The New Testament describes various family and household codes to govern behavior in the home. Colossians
15Give my greetings to the brothers and sisters in Laodicea, and to Nympha and the church in her house.16And when this letter has been read among you, have it r View more.
60-61 AD that devastated Colossae. These problems with false teachers are understandable in light of the religious diversity of Colossae, which included Hellenistic and Roman religion and philosophy, Phrygian religion, and Judaism, and Paul actually mentions Greeks, Jews, barbarians, and Scythians in reference to those in the area of Colossae (Colossians 3:11).
Persian emphasis on the beauty and leisure of gardens and parks (for hunting, bathing, and relaxing) seems to have found Colossae a most conducive settlement. Established as early as the 12th century BC during the Phrygian Kingdom, Colossae had previously been a major city, located around 120 miles east of Ephesus on the ancient road from the Anatolian coast toward Syria and Mesopotamia, which meant that merchants, travelers, and armies would pass through the city. Filed Under: Acts to Revelation, Dig Deeper Tagged With: Acts, Acts to Revelation, Dig Deeper, Episode 18, Titus Kennedy, Your email address will not be published.
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"This went on for two years, so that all The population of Colossae was The Persian Royal Road," Iran, lecture hall of Tyrannus. Dated to the late first or early second century, the inscription seems to be directly related to restoration work after the earthquake. Roman soldier, lawyer, and writer who pursued a philosophy of nature and the physical world. differences -- with doctrinal problems that Paul addresses in other These three cities, says Eusebius, were destroyed by an earthquake, in the tenth of Nero, or about two years after the date of St. Paul's Epistle to the Colossians. above and Polyaenus, Stratagems of War; Diodorus Siculus, Universal History; Eusebius, Chronicle). and Early-Roman Roads of Asia Minor.
destroyed Laodicea, Hierapolis, and Colosse in 64 AD, mentioned by
relocated from Babylon (where they had been exiled in the sixth century the big city, they weren't isolated, since they were situated near the churches (4:13-16). contour of an outdoor amphitheater is discernable on the site.
50-51. Acts 1-12: the Flesh, 23 (Col. 1:21).
extremely speculative and, frankly, create more problems than they Christ Powered Life (Rom 5-8)
more possible points are less certain. Twin peaks rise in a peaceful, lush agricultural setting in what is now modern Turkey.
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1, 2, and 3 John
These two cities were backed by Hellenistic rulers (the Seleucids, followed by the Attalids) who fostered the protection of their interests in the cities they founded by bringing Jewish migrants from Babylonia and Mesopotamia, for which they were awarded land-holdings and tax exemptions.
of Rome (97-98 AD),5Ignatius (about 110 AD),6and the Letter of Barnabas (182-188 AD),7was included in Marcion's canon (c. 144 AD) and the Ephesians 12. Rediscovered in 1836, but never excavated, Colossae was only mentioned in passing by ancient writers (cf.
Abraham
Unlike many of the cities in Asia minor, Paul did not bring the Gospel to Colossae, and he may never have even visited the city (Colossians 2:1, 4:12-17). As a way to quell a rebellion pulled away to a heresy that promised greater "fullness.". Used by Asia, in present-day Turkey. centuries BC, Colossae had been the most important of the three cities, This has had a deleterious consequence for interpretation of the New Testament letters associated with the site. to syncretism with other religious movements. of the gospel to their own hometowns. 1For I want you to know how much I am struggling for you, and for those in Laodicea, and for all who have not seen me face to face. But he doesn't demonstrate adequately that these later Historical sources demonstrate that Jews had lived in the region of Phrygia from at least the time of Antiochus III in about 200 BC when 2000 families were relocated from Mesopotamia (Josephus, Antiquities). Colossians is apparently written The
primarily to Gentile Christians. a city of Phrygia Minor, which stood on the river Lyceus, at an equal distance between Laodicea and Hierapolis. The Christian who brought the Gospel to Colossae and the surrounding area and continued to be a leader in the church, Epaphras, had a name which has been found on a few Roman period inscriptions and seems to be a shortened form of Epaphroditus (Colossians 1:7, 4:12; Philemon 23; Philippians 2:25, 4:18; MAMA 6.15; Arndt et al., A Greek-English Lexicon).
The problems in Colossae included the adoption of Hellenistic philosophy, opposition to the complete Deity and supremacy of Christ, salvation made complete through the work of Christ, observation of rituals and laws such as food/drink, festivals, new moons, and Sabbaths, worship of angels, false visions, asceticism, mysticism, and other man made religious practices (Arnold, The Colossian Syncretism; Sokupa, The Calendric Elements in Colossians 2:16; Williams, The Cult of the Angels at Colossae; cf. To protect them from the seduction of false teachers, probably 15-43 (British Institute of Persian Studies).
Paul didn't travel through the province of Asia, on the sufficiency and supremacy of Christ as the antidote to being Both Philemon, who was a church leader and host, and Onesimus, were members of the church in Colossae (Philemon 1-2; Colossians 4:9).
Clement of Alexandria, Stromata 5.12 (Col 2:2b-3).
A first-century C.E. Though these cities were far from Some scholars think the name Colossae does not derive from a Greek designation but is a Greek rendering of the Hittite place-name. The course of the River Lycus probably was incorporated within the city walls during the Greco-Roman periods.
Colossae, a city of Phrygia, witnesses continuous occupation from 3500 BCE to 1200 CE. Eusebius (Chronicle 1.21-22). Rules for Christian Households18Wives, be subject to your husbands, as is fitting in the Lord.19Husbands, love your wives and never treat them harshly.20Childr View more.
the Lord." They may not inspire confidence that here lay a citysuccessively a major Hittite settlement, an administrative center in the Persian Empire, the home for a number of Christ-followers, and a famous Byzantine pilgrim destination.
The nearby cities of Laodicea and Hierapolis, and likely Colossae, were damaged or destroyed by an earthquake in 17 AD, rebuilt, again damaged by an earthquake in about 60 AD or so, and then rebuilt once again (Tacitus, Annals; Eusebius, Chronicle; Orosius).
Church
To the north of the hilltop there are rooms and graves carved into the rocks. en Espaol permission. To report dead links, typos, or html errors or suggestions about making these resources more useful use the convenient, Watson's Biblical & Theological Dictionary. Epaphras can't return at this time, Paul sends the letter by the hand of
The city lived its heydays during the Persian rule in Asia Minor between 6th and 4th centuries BC, but lost its importance after the foundations of Hierapolis and Laodicea around 2nd century BC. Colossae was the smallest of three Hebrews Copyright 2022, Ralph F. Wilson. Ancient lower Mesopotamia, which for much of the second and first millenniums was the under the control of an empire centered in Babylon. heresy seems to have had these elements: Most scholars agree on these points. Entry for 'Colosse'. the Jews and Greeks who lived in the province of Asia heard the word of purposes in mind: As you study Colossians, I'm sure you'll not only There are very few remains from the ancient city, such as the acropolis on the hilltop. However, most scholars who accept Pauline
Nearby Laodicea was established in the 3rd century BC, taken over by Rome in 133 BC, and soon after the major road was relocated through Laodicea, bypassing Colossae and contributing to the rise of Laodicea and the decline of Colossae. research professor at the Centre for Public and Contextual Theology , Charles Sturt University.
They were permitted to observe their own laws, given land, and
After saluting the Colossian Christians in his own name, and that of Timothy, St. Paul assures them, that since he had heard of their faith in Christ Jesus, and of their love to all Christians, he had not ceased to return thanks to God for them, and to pray that they might increase in spiritual knowledge, and abound in every good work; he describes the dignity of Christ, and declares the universality of the Gospel dispensation, which was a mystery formerly hidden, but now made manifest; and he mentions his own appointment, through the grace of God, to be the Apostle of the Gentiles; he expresses a tender concern for the Colossians and other Christians of Phrygia, and cautions them against being seduced from the simplicity of the Gospel, by the subtlety of Pagan philosophers, or the superstition of Judaizing Christians; he directs them to set their affections on things above, and forbids every species of licentiousness; he exhorts to a variety of Christian virtues, to meekness, veracity, humility, charity, and devotion; he enforces the duties of wives, husbands, children, fathers, servants, and masters; he inculcates the duty of prayer, and of prudent behaviour toward unbelievers; and after adding the salutations of several persons then at Rome, and desiring that this epistle might be read in the church of their neighbours the Laodiceans, he concludes with a salutation from himself, written, as usual, with his own hand.