fighters. Cyprus never became a battleground during the War, save for limited air raids. 45 TNA/FCO 141/3490, Commissioner of Labour to the Colonial Secretary, 11January 1955. Soon, however, suspicions between the British and Greek Cypriots (both left and right wing) arose and, by the end of the War, the colonial administration became anxious about the long-term stability on the island. Nicosia, pp. Eden A. 16Such strategic considerations, quite naturally, held little meaning for Greek-Cypriots. 2012.

0000001840 00000 n Tallents, who would prove to be an insightful public relations expert, was actively promoting the significance of information services within the Empire and the study of conduct of enemy propaganda. London. (Orthodox Christian Union of Youth).

European Decolonization 1918-1981: An Introductory Survey. 43The constitutional construct that had emerged at Lancaster House was astutely summed up by Franois Crouzet in his magisterial work on the conflict in late colonial Cyprus from 1946 through to its climax in 1959. According to Cypriot folk tradition, the Bishop of Kitium welcomed the first High Commissioner, Sir Garnet Wolseley, with a direct plea to Britain to cede Cyprus to Greece.7 For the Church itself the transition from Ottoman occupation to British rule posed challenges because the British refused to recognize the Churchs right to involve itself to civil affairs as it did during the Ottoman rule. 36 Governor Wright reported that while the Bishop initially appeared to be moderate, he was now intransigent and anti-British. tYfUkKIufxt Pm6y0dO@ q 8 June 2016 | by Katie Joice | Categories: Research. Kitromilides P.1977.

The Greek-Cypriot side abandoned Enosis and agreed to the formation of an independent Cyprus. 0000142493 00000 n trailer The Eastern Question 1774-1923. 2008. The Armys presence in Cyprus includes two infantry battalions, a Joint Service Signals Unit, a Squadron of Royal Engineers, a unit of the Royal Military Police and an Army Air Corps helicopter flight. 7In1923, with the Lausanne Treaty, Turkey renounced its rights to the island and, in1925, Cyprus became a Crown Colony. Markides D. 2009. (Turk Mukavement Teskilati- Turkish Resistance Organization) a paramilitary Turkish-Cypriot organization formed to counteract E.O.K.A. Soldiers were drawn from a number of nations.

2 In 1963, the Cypriot cabinet moved Independence Day away from the summer holiday season to 1October. This decision was inextricably connected to the British desire to preserve the status quo of the Ottoman Empire. See: TNA/FCO 141/3490, Cyprus Intelligence Committee, The Ethnarchy Organization, 26July 1956. 0000005263 00000 n R.Holland (ed.

137153. Makarios rejected British proposals, in the hope of gaining more advantages, but regional developments, including the crisis in Jordan, renewed vociferous criticism of Londons policy in the Middle East. University of Minnesota. 32At the beginning of the revolt, the strategic aim ofE.O.K.A. As these measures were consolidated during the Governorship of Richmond Palmer (1933-1939), and this period remains known in Greek-Cypriot historiography as Palmers Rule or Palmerokratia, which lasted until the onset of the Second World War. However complicated the constitution of the new state was, it remained profoundly true that Cyprus now entered a new phase of its turbulent history. Our success was due, not to experience, but to my deep understanding of Cypriot psychology and my sense of war the quality of judgment that brings correct decisions in moments of crisis. 0000010827 00000 n The Republic of Cyprus celebrated in2020 its 60th anniversary. ), were established, and financial assistance was received from these organisations in1952, perhaps even earlier.45 Furthermore, the Archbishop bolstered links with the farmers union(P.E.K. Grivas was forced into hiding and in January 1957 two EOKA leaders, Drakos and Afxentiou, were killed. Such examples demonstrate the degree to which the British and the Greeks of Cyprus continued to remain far apart. 0000001949 00000 n FO 141: Foreign and Commonwealth Office and Predecessors, Records of Former Colonial Administrations, Migrated Archives. 28In November 1952 Field-Marshall Alexandros Papagos took over as Premier of a strong conservative Greek government, and he did not share the doubts of the previous Greek governments with regard to Cyprus. These conflicting aims brought about the collapse of the Anglo-Cypriot relationship while they forced Britain to seek for a regional ally; Turkey was identified for this role. 41The proposition of a new plan from the new Governor, Sir Hugh Foot, which excluded the unilateral imposition of double self-determination, angered the Turkish-Cypriot community. Covering 98 square miles (157km), the sovereign bases enable Britain to maintain a permanent military presence in the Eastern Mediterranean.

38 See generally political report for January 1950 in TNA, CO 537/6235. His speech remained known as the Call to Youth. The Greek government hoped that by appealing to theU.N. it would exert pressure on the British to finally discuss Cyprus. : 1950. His own conclusion merits a slightly extended quotation: Dautre part, il nest pas douteux que le systme de Zrich et de Londres, tout en condamnant en principe le partage de Chypre, tendait, comme le plan Macmillan, raliser un partage non territorial, institutionnaliser la division entre deux communauts separate but equal; il crait pour elles des institutions indpendantes[] qui chapperaient trs largement au contrles du gouvernement central, si bien que lon aurait pratiquement deux gouvernements parallles. However, the Churchs campaign against British colonial rule intersected in complex ways with Cold War geopolitics. His vandalisms have been reported repeatedly. It granted the Turkish-Cypriot minority far-reaching veto rights and other privileges, making it almost equal with the78% Greek-Cypriot majority. Alastos D.1976. This sparked a Turkish invasion, which overran about 40 per cent of the island. The insurgency against British rule in the south of the Arabian Peninsula marked the end of a 20-year retreat from Empire. 0000001012 00000 n YiangouA. THE ANTICHRISTS. Harding ordered that pro-government and anti-EOKA leaflets should be airdropped by plane. See also Mayes 1960, pp. 17Precisely because the British had decided to retain the island, some reform in the internal situation of the island should be implemented. Indeed, the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-1878, which reopened the Eastern Question and saw Russia expand as far as Constantinople itself, threatened the very existence of the Sultans empire. London. On 23October 1946, the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Arthur Creech Jones, announced the convening of a Consultative Assembly, with Cypriot participation, to draft a new constitution.29 Simultaneously, it was further declared that a new Governor, Lord Winster, was to assume duties on the island. Bennet, 14November 1947.

and had invited members of this party to join the Council so as to form a united Enosis front. Maria Hadjiathanasiou is a final-year PhD candidate completing a thesis entitled The Stimulus of Rhetoric: Propaganda in Cyprus at the End of Empire, 1945-1959, at the Department of Historical Studies, University of Bristol. Indeed, busy minds in colonial outposts such as Cyprus, though attempting to re-orient the Cypriots toward British rule, (for example through the teaching of English as a foreign language, the circulation of British films and periodicals, scholarship schemes, and so on), could not succeed when their efforts were short of money and misconceived due to lack of expertise or simply lack of appetite on the part of the colonial staff.

Despite speculation in the press,33 as well as the views expressed by officials who believed constitutional discussions ought to resume,34 no initiative took place. The Cyprus Revolt: An account of the Struggle for Union with Greece. Conscription was not imposed but Cypriot volunteers formed the Cyprus regiment, fighting in Greece under British command. In its new form, under MakariosIII, it comprised around thirty members, including mayors, lawyers, journalists, doctors and schoolmasters, all nominated by the Archbishop. 153169. 2017. 0000001732 00000 n General Georgios Grivas, EOKAs guerrilla leader, commented in his Memoirs that Greek Cypriots were not fooled by British propaganda efforts, and that they knew the truth well enough. A particularly popular method of seeking to influence hearts and minds was leaflet distribution. Crouzet F.1973. Georghallides G.S.1979. 0000002603 00000 n

Great Britain and the Cyprus Convention Policy of1878. The governments attempts to woo the local Greek Cypriot audience provoked harsh criticism, ridicule and boycotting, by order of the ecclesiastical authorities. Alexander G.M.1979, British Policy on the Question of Enosis, 1945-1946. 15 For the ways with which the war affected Cyprus see Yiangou 2010. HUKn0\R@O 29 TNA/FO 371/58761/R15605/G, From Foreign Office to Athens, 23October 1946. Most of these leaflets were written by PEKA (the Political Committee for the Cypriot Struggle), which was responsible for the enlightenment of the public about the Struggle and for boosting their morale. 0000001225 00000 n Should the foreign ruler refuse to open them, we shall force them open.37 Makarios took the leadership of the Enosis campaign as organized by the Church. Makarios was indeed preaching to the converted. 2010. (There is a small Turkish minority whose rights would be secured)[] For these different reasons I would strongly advocate that consideration be given to the very early cession of Cyprus to Greece, before the Cypriot campaign is embittered by violence and before cession can be represented as yielding to force[]21, 14The Colonial Office held an opposing attitude to such views, however, and argued against such an eventuality. British Imperialism in Cyprus: The Inconsequential Possession, 1878-1915. Oxford. Beaton R.2019. Meanwhile, in post-war Cyprus, the Church having partly regained its privileges in the early 1940s, transformed itself into a public body that vigorously argued the case for Cyprus independence from foreign rule and its union with Greece renewing the case it had been making along these lines since 1878. 0000002958 00000 n Cyprus was now, in effect, two separate states, with UNFICYP policing the 180km buffer zone between them. (Alkimos Neolea E.O.K.A. endstream endobj 52 0 obj<> endobj 53 0 obj<> endobj 54 0 obj<> endobj 55 0 obj<> endobj 56 0 obj<> endobj 57 0 obj<> endobj 58 0 obj<> endobj 59 0 obj<> endobj 60 0 obj<> endobj 61 0 obj<> endobj 62 0 obj<> endobj 63 0 obj<> endobj 64 0 obj<> endobj 65 0 obj<>stream Colonial police were summoned. Field Marshal Harding, who had previously fought in both World Wars, tackled the Malayan Emergency and advised the British government on the Mau Mau Uprising, was on the ground.

3The British authorities had to confront the Enosis question, the Greek-Cypriot demand for the union of the island with Greece almost from the outset of their rule on the island. According to Grivas, the British militarys inability to tackle the guerrilla insurgency was partly due to Hardings lack of understanding of the psychology of his opponent. Katsiaounis R.2000. YiangouA.

Cambridge. 13The Cyprus question divided British official circles, especially the Foreign and the Colonial Office, and discussion of the future of Cyprus took place even as the war progressed. The political responsibility of the organization was vested in P.E.K.A. Despite difficulties he distinguished himself at elementary school and was admitted at the age of twelve as a novice at Kykko Monastery, and he enrolled at the renowned Pancyprian Gymnasium of Nicosia for the higher forms of secondary education. 44 TNA/FCO 141/3490, L.G.Durrell to Director General of Information, 30January 1956. 0000011876 00000 n Makarios: Faith and Power. were hanged between 1955 and 1959. The Assemblys work began on 1November 1947, and Greek-Cypriot delegates asked for self-government. Darwin J. The Greeks of Cyprus often promoted their national demands concurrently with requests for the improvement of the economic and social conditions on the island.8 Such requests took the form of memorandums submitted to the colonial authorities, while a number of formal delegations often visited London to promote their demands; the Archbishop was invariably at the head of such deputations. Armenians, Latins and Maronites constituted around 1.7% of the total population.6. We have been too much on the defensive I feel very strongly that we must step up our propaganda on Cyprus, and make it much more vigorous, offensive and robust. London. The British, who had administered Cyprus since 1878, ruled this out in 1954 as it planned to transfer its Suez military headquarters to Cyprus. ), Emergencies and Disorder in the European Empires After 1945. All in all, Sargent concluded, union of Cyprus with Greece would strengthen the position of both the British as well as of the Greek government during a critical period.20 Similar views were echoed in the Foreign Office until at least 1947. Therefore, the course of the1920s saw the consolidation of Enosis as an actual movement rather than a vague aspiration in Greek Cypriot consciousness, under the leadership of the Orthodox Church. The money, however, was never remitted to the Sultan because his government had defaulted on the servicing of the 1855 Crimean war loan; it was instead paid by the British to the loans own bondholders. The rise of Egyptian nationalism in1952 would also affect Britains position in the region. 64 Makarios received a heros welcome in Athens in what has been described as the apogee of his entire career. At the end of the War the British administration in Cyprus relaxed the repressive measures imposed after the October 1931 events. <<2ba02a3b71cfd9478784139cc326a220>]>> Lee D.E.1934. YiangouA. 31The collapse of the Anglo-Cypriot relationship and the onset of the E.O.K.A. Assisted by his secretary-general of the Foreign Ministry and permanent representative to theUN, Alexis Kyrou, the Greek Prime Minister gave in to pressure from Makarios and to Greek public opinion. Minneapolis. Soon afterwards, the wooden building was set on fire and burned to the ground. 37In October 1955 Governor Harding and Archbishop Makarios were engaged in a series of meetings to discuss the future of Cyprus.56 The Archbishop insisted that London should recognize the principle of self-determination for Cyprus and introduce a liberal constitution; Harding proposed a formula which, while not indicating what Londons position actually was, in essence stepped away from the never position. xb```f``j B@Q)0w&x4If=(}aiS yf|HZ:m#"A\#6ix{GV#3@^K8z`k37:nlY@?X % Qbp I2Ft QcccW@ U 5 , 0a#W- ~i+CC7LiLK3e The Greek-Cypriot National Guard responded by attacking Turkish-Cypriot enclaves. Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies15, pp. That opponent was not only made up of the EOKA fighters, but also large swathes of the Greek Cypriot population, which had been assisting the struggle with Makariossblessings. The hangings aroused sharp criticism of British methods for dealing with the crisis, even within the British Parliament.59 In total nine members of E.O.K.A. See also Kelling 1990, pp.

36The conference collapsed as Prime Minister Eden in London had intended it should do following a stark presentation of Turkish objections to any change in the status quo, with the anti-Greek riots in Constantinople on the night of 67September serving as a convenient coda.55 Nevertheless, the Tripartite Conference is important, as it marks the return of Turkey to developments concerning Cyprus for the first time since 1923, when it had forfeited its rights on the island with the Lausanne Treaty. 5The dynamic of the Enosis movement fluctuated during the following decades: in the early years of British rule, up around to1900, the movement existed in a comparatively milder form. operated at multiple levels. Consequently, British attitudes hardened, too, and in1951 the British enacted fresh repressive legislation. 531, column 508. In a new Cold War context, a debt-ridden Britain, in need of repaying its creditors, namely the newly emerged super-power the U.S.A., focused upon the exploitation of its colonies. endstream endobj 66 0 obj<>stream Cypriots enlisted as volunteers to the Cyprus Regiment, which was formed in February 1940, and to the Cyprus Volunteer Force (formed in June 1940), and many women also joined the Auxiliary Territorial Service(ATS) and the Womens Auxiliary Air Force(WAAF). In 1956, British and French forces invaded Egypt in collusion with Israel. xref 25The Pancyprian National Organization of Youth(P.E.O.N.) Eight other Greek Cypriots, including two leading communists (the Communist Party of Cyprus had been founded in1926) were also deported. The new premier in Greece, Constantinos Karamanlis, who supported the process, indicated to the British that the formula made the right of self-determination unrecognizable.58. 0000002469 00000 n Nicosia. Despite this, gradually, assisted by greater freedom in civil life under the new regime, the Church naturally consolidated its place as the second power on the island. Protectorate Cyprus: British Imperial Power before World WarI. London. This remained particularly true following the end of hostilities, when Cyprus was adjacent to the new lands the British assumed control over in the Middle East. %PDF-1.4 %

An Uncommon Alliance: The Democratic Union and AKEL during the 1959 Elections. The Cyprus Tribute and the Geopolitics in the Levant, 1875-1960. 1988. While P.E.O.N. See Crawshaw 1978, pp. Cambridge. According to Hopkinson, Cyprus could never expect to be fully independent.52 The announcement came after confirmation that the British Middle East Land Force Headquarters was to move from Suez to Cyprus; the statement was accompanied by anti-sedition warnings in Nicosia.53 This statement caused an uproar and inspired the Archbishops famous Phaneromeni Oath speech, which signaled the onset of an intransigent phase of the struggle against the British. 120-122. Greek Cypriots were ultimately disappointed, and this feeling would become a core component of the postwar Anglo-Cypriot relationship.17. The British themselves acknowledged the potential destabilizing factor of enosis at a very early stage of their rule on the island. 46 43 National Service, a standardised form of peacetime conscription, was introduced in 1947 for all able-bodied men between the ages of 18 and 30. 12 Key works on education politics and the British in Cyprus include Heraclidou 2017 and Persianis 1978. The double self-determination statement was still valid, so should the plan for tridominium be rejected, the prospect of partition remained in force. The Secretary of State for the Colonies Alan Lennox Boyds statement on double self-determination for both Greek and Turkish Cypriots which accompanied (and eventually undermined) Lord Radcliffes Cyprus proposals, presented in the British parliament on December19, 1956, must be examined against this background.

Mannheim& Mhnesee, pp. 943948. 0000009095 00000 n 0000004392 00000 n The Mechanism of Catastrophe: The Turkish Pogrom of September 67, 1955, and the Destruction of the Greek Community in Istanbul. The introduction of a new custom tariff by the colonial authorities ignited a series of events that spontaneously led to widespread riots in October 1931, which the British managed to suppress quickly.13. 0000004538 00000 n See Antonopoulos 2008. : 1957-1963. 0000030963 00000 n Tensions between the Greeks of Cyprus and the British intensified during the1920s: continuing disappointments regarding demands for Enosis, grievances due to British interference in matters of education,12 and the poor economic condition of the island were causes for intense dissatisfaction.