"Nationalism and Ethnicity: Asia Japan's reaction to the challenge of Western expansionism was a modernization projectoften referred to as the Meiji Restoration (1868)designed to make the country catch up with the West. ." The Spectre of Comparisons: Nationalism, Southeast Asia, and the World. This is a dummy description. Gandhis commitment to non-violence, secularism, pluralism, and the rule of lawall key elements of open nationalismhas been eroded by exclusivist, ethno-religious nationalism that has exploited Indias democratization. For the members of Hindu nationalist groups such as the Bharatiya Janata Party, which rose from relative obscurity to govern India between 1998 and 2004, or the National Volunteer Organization (Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, or RSS), the largest existing private paramilitary body in the world, Hinduism is above all a symbol of Indian national identity. Its attitude to China's heritage was also ambivalent, and China's glories were sometimes attacked as the products of a feudal society. However, Japan's wartime record remains a flashpoint. The desire to compete in power and influence with the Western powers and to control the raw materials needed for its industrial effort led to an expansionist tendency in Japanese nationalism. . Indonesia's annexation of East Timor in 1975 became a subject of international embarrassment for Indonesia and yet was difficult for Jakarta to negotiate its way out of because it had become inscribed in Suharto-era nationalism. Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Western powers increasingly competed for power and influence in Asia. The promotion of industry, the creation of a modern army under central control, and the development of universal education were key measures taken by the Meiji government. Mohandas Gandhi (18691948), for example, favored the traditional dhoti made of homespun cloth, while most male Congress Party leaders wore a tailored suit, in later decades with a Nehru collar. The success of the Tibetan independence movement in exile in drawing attention to its cause makes Tibet a constant irritant in China's international relations. Recession in the 1990s and social and political malaise since then have given rise to feelings of frustration in Japan, and some commentators believe that a persistent sense of loss may be partly explained by the lack of progressive open nationalism. The case studies below will illuminate some particular instances of these problems and the different ways they have been resolved. Despite the failure of open nationalism to take hold in China or in India, Fukuda sees it as an attractive concept for Japan, where nationalism in general has been discredited by its association with Japans history of colonization and war. In India, open nationalism was also espoused by the nations pre-eminent political and ideological leader, Mohandas Gandhi. The international dimensions of both problems also pose difficulties for Beijing. Ethnicity has been an issue for Chinese nationalism. 357 0 obj <> endobj Republic. Urdu was chosen as the national language over Punjabi and Saraiki, mutually intelligible languages spoken by 58 percent of the population, because it had high cultural prestige, a rich literary heritage, and no particular provincial base. From the Sino-Japanese War (18941895) onward, Japan strove steadily to extend its economic and political influence in China. Indian national consciousness, on which the independence movement was based, first developed among the educated middle classes of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (Chennai). The Congress Party, which projected itself as the sole all-India nationalist movement, had some Muslim support; indeed, Muhammed Ali Jinnah (18761948), the future Muslim League leader and founder of Pakistan, was a member from 1896 to 1920, but its leadership was overwhelmingly Hindu. Download Product Flyer is to download PDF in new tab. Limitless? However, Asian nationalisms do have one important common feature: they developed largely in response to Western invasion or intrusion. Maoist China, while avowedly embracing Marxism, was largely hostile to Western influence. . Multilingual countries have attempted to promote national languages: Bahasa Indonesia in Indonesia, Urdu in Pakistan, and standard Chinese in China. Japan's Quiet Transformation: Social Change and Civil Society in the 21st Century (2004), and Contemporary Japan: History, Politics, and Social Change since the 1980s (Wiley Blackwell, second edition, 2012). 336Pages. He encouraged academics to produce a secularist history of India for use in the schools and promoted the celebration of a diversity of cultures within a single secular state. 2004. America has always been interested in China, but rarely has evidenced much understanding of the Middle Kingdom or of the diffe, Compiled from the January 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume., Culture Name Language was often an issue. Nish, Ian. What Can We Really Expect from 5G? How can nation-states that have propagated ethno- and linguistic nationalism, such as Malaya or Vietnam, accord fair and equal treatment to their substantial ethnic minorities? 2022 . Indeed, open nationalist movements are not always successful. However, the date of retrieval is often important. Nationalistic sentiment has been strong in young countries, but violent conflict has rarely broken out between nations of the region. With a population of 8,603,000 in 1990, the Hui are the most popu, Boxer Uprising, 18981900, antiforeign movement in China, culminating in a desperate uprising against Westerners and Western influence. India also has significant Sikh and Christian minorities. The ideology of nationalism was used to demand effort, commitment, and sacrifice from all Japanese. London and New York: Routledge. The new mass education system taught children that the Japanese people belonged to one family, all descended from the same ancestor. Pakistan has four major ethnic groupsBaluchis, Pujabis, Pashtuns, and Sindhisand many minor ones. Yet the new nation-state was otherwise based on a quasi-Western system of government and administration created by economic, political, and social reforms. A "measured, beautifully written book.Kingston's fine survey asks us to ponder [nationalism's] strengths and dangers, and reminds us to be careful of the 'politicians and polemicists' who enthusiastically hawk it." Madan, T. N. 1997. Melbourne, Australia: Longman Cheshire. This remains the case to the present day. How can nationalism assist the nation-state to address the deep fissures, such as those between Hindus and Muslims in India, or Singhalese and Tamils in Sri Lanka? Peregrinations of Pakistani Nationalism. In Asian Nationalism, edited by Michael Leifer, 125153. The problems are exacerbated by the complex history of national borders in Asia. 2000. As this general discussion has shown, all Asian nationalist movements encountered these problems of national culture versus Westernization, of tradition versus modernization, and of building a common national identity in a population that may be more or less diverse. Desai, Meghnad. In addition to the MLA, Chicago, and APA styles, your school, university, publication, or institution may have its own requirements for citations. These new social groups often worked in close contact with Westerners, sent their children to schools that pursued modern curricula, and read modern-style newspapers. By Bryce WakefieldRobert M. Hathaway, Director, Asia Program, The Asia Program promotes policy debate and intellectual discussions on U.S. interests in the Asia-Pacific as well as political, economic, security, and social issues relating to the worlds most populous and economically dynamic region. Hardly surprisingly, the Chinese government is fearful of the influence of militant Islam from beyond its borders. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. Caroline Ford However, the New Life movement, introduced in China by the Guomindang government in the 1930s with its emphasis on chastity, modesty, and traditional gender roles, moved in the opposite direction, as did the virtuous mother, good wife campaign of the 1980s in post-Mao China. The threat of an external enemy has helped to maintain national unity in India and Pakistan and in North and South Korea, while religion has been significant in Pakistan. The defeat of Japan in World War II resulted in its withdrawal from China, including Taiwan, from Korea, and from the huge territories it had occupied in Southeast Asia stretching from Vietnam to the Indonesian Archipelago. Unlike Indonesia, where a unified state was constructed out of difference, Hindu nationalists have taken advantage of decentralization to become highly visible in the political world. Over 90 percent of China's population is ethnically Han, but there are many other minority ethnic groups. London and New York: Routledge. They perceived reform and modernization as essential for national survival. He is the author of Japan in Transformation 1952--2000 (2001). Elites played an important part in the development of nationalism. Then, copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list. Identification. However, suspicion of Muslims (and later of Sikhs and the marginalization of both communities) has at times undermined the idea of religion as irrelevant to Indian nationhood. Karachi: Oxford University Press. For example, the Chinese nationalist leader Sun Yat-sen (18661925), a Cantonese graduate of the Hong Kong Medical College, spoke English better than he spoke standard Chinese.

It helped the Guomindang rally support for its national government in 1928, and inspired resistance during the Japanese occupation. In India, as in other British colonies, nationalism drew on an English-language literature on liberalism and democracy. Ahmed, Feroz. Encyclopedia of Race and Racism. 1998. The Communist Party invoked the need for national construction as often as socialist construction in appeals for effort and sacrifice. India, by contrast, has retained a considerable Muslim population. London and New York: Routledge. Thinkers such as Liang Qichao (18731929), often influenced by modern learning that they encountered through study in Japan, began to analyze China's problems in the context of the modern world and urged the transfer of loyalty from the ruler to the nation. Yahuda, Michael. While student demonstrators were committed to universal ideals, their stated goal was to promote Chinas strength and dignity through the implementation of democratic political reforms that guaranteed human rights and equality before the law. Leifer, Michael, ed. The discourse of nationalism might venerate certain social customs while it condemned others as backward, unscientific, or unhygienic. 2 Contemporary Culture Wars and National Identity 16, 3 Nation Branding Confronts Troubling Realities 39, Part II Political Economy and Spectacle 57, 9 Textbook Nationalism and Memory Wars 196, 10 Nationalism and Territorial Disputes 219, Select Bibliographical Guide to Nationalisms in Asia 273. The economies of other Asian countries, including China and India, entered a period of rapid growth in the last two decades of the twentieth century. https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/nationalism-and-ethnicity-asia, "Nationalism and Ethnicity: Asia This question is for testing whether or not you are a human visitor and to prevent automated spam submissions. Most have nonetheless succeeded in attaining some medium-term stability by building an overarching political culture expressed in the state, by appealing for unity against external or internal enemies, by controlling and shaping education in the service of nation-building, and by promising and in many cases achieving economic growth and improved living standards. Ethnic Nationalism in Mainland China. In Asian Nationalism, edited by Michael Leifer, 3862. Because each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article, Encyclopedia.com cannot guarantee each citation it generates. Each nation has sought its own solution. It has also been activated for such goals as national self-determination, social and economic development, the defense of territorial integrity or territorial expansion, and domination over other nations. Contemporary Japanese nationalism is restrained and introverted compared to past standards. Nehru, India's post-independence leader, mobilized Gandhi's prestige and his ecumenical vision of an independent India to fight the religious definition of nationhood favored by the right wing of the Congress Party. Official visits by government leaders to Shinto shines commemorating the war dead spark controversy both within Japan and abroad, while the governments of China and South Korea have repeatedly criticized the textbooks used in Japanese schools on the grounds that they whitewash Japan's wartime record of aggression and atrocities. After independence, such promises have only been partially realized, although starting from the 1960s, the East Asian economic miracle raised the gross national product (GNP) per capita and living standards in Japan, South Korea, and Singapore. India, Burma, and Malaya were British colonies; the East Indies were under the Dutch; while the French colonized Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos, collectively known as Indochina. %PDF-1.6 % Encyclopedia.com. All Rights Reserved, A More United, Better-Armed Opposition Can Bring Democracy to Myanmar, 2021-22 Wilson China Fellowship: Essays on China and U.S. Policy, One Year On: The Momentum of Myanmar's Armed Rebellion, WQ Spring 2022 | Reconcilable Differences. By the end of, National-Louis University: Narrative Description, National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain, Nationalism and Ethnicity: Cultural Nationalism, Nationalism and Ethnicity: The Middle East, Nationalism and Ethnicty: Definition and History of the Concept of Nationalism, Nationalism in Music, Europe and the United States, Nationalism in the United States in the Nineteenth Century, https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/nationalism-and-ethnicity-asia. 1992. London and New York: Routledge. Encyclopedias almanacs transcripts and maps. How can a sense of common identity and unity be achieved in a country as ethnically diverse as, say, India or Indonesia? Japan might do well to embrace open nationalism as the theoretical backbone for its foreign policy as the earthquake-stricken nation positions itself in 21st-century Asia. In postwar Asia, nationalism has also played a positive role in democratic transitions, helping to bring about social and economic reforms. . London and New York: Routledge. Mackerras, Colin. The Changing Faces of Chinese Nationalism: The Dimensions of Statehood. In Asian Nationalism, edited by Michael Leifer, 120. It, CHINA, RELATIONS WITH. In its suppression of Naga and Mizo nationalism, of the Khalistan movement in the Punjab, and of Kashmiri unrest, the Indian state has shown a consistent determination to resist any threat to its stability or its territorial integrity. The two countries have fought three wars since independence and remain in dispute over Kashmir. By contrast, Pakistan continues to forge its national identity in large part on the basis of rivalry with India. Fukuda first pointed to Indonesia, which has been transformed from an authoritarian state to a democracy in the past decade, and noted that it can be seen as a success story of open nationalism. Most online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers.

Nationalism in China was a response to the humiliations suffered at the hands of foreign imperialists.I In the nineteenth century, China lost wars with Britain, Russia, France, and Japan, and in addition to these countries, fourteen other countries, including the United States, seized the chance to force concessions from China. Read more, One Woodrow Wilson Plaza1300 Pennsylvania Ave. NWWashington, DC 20004-3027. Fukuda thinks that Japan should explore a new national identity in Asia, the region it belongs to geographically, but in which it has never been accepted as a full member. Part of this new openness should be to accept and explore the open nationalisms of the region in order to forge a sense of community between nations. In 1947, British Indiaa complex of areas under direct colonial rule and princely states under the British crowngave way to the independent states of India and Pakistan. 2022 The Wilson Center. Using a comparative, interdisciplinary approach, Nationalism in Asia analyzes currents of nationalism in five contemporary Asian societies: China, India, Indonesia, Japan, and South Korea. 2000. Nationalism has been one of the most powerful forces shaping modern political life in Europe since at least the eighteenth century. Japan needs to set an example by creating a national discourse that is focused on the notions of human rights and democracy that it has successfully adopted and by opening its borders to foreign workers. China escaped outright colonization but was forced to open more than one hundred ports to trade and to allow foreign settlements and concessions on Chinese territory that were, in effect, mini colonies. China also claimed suzerainty over Korea and Annam (northern Vietnam). London: Verso. Others in the Congress Party saw the use of English as a unifying practice in a multiethnic multilingual country. Yet Japan revived and invented Shinto traditions to provide the new state with legitimizing rites and appealed to the traditional virtues of filiality, hard work, and loyalty to the emperor in its depiction of the ideal citizen. Therefore, that information is unavailable for most Encyclopedia.com content. Oxford: Oxford University Press. What's Transparent Peer Review and How Can it Benefit You? The Japanese desire to expand its economic empire, reinforced by the 1930s depression, resulted in Japan's World War II (19391945) creation of a vast but short-lived economic empire stretching from northeast China to the Dutch East Indies and including all the former European colonies of East and Southeast Asia. As these nations were defined in relation to a shared language, tradition, custom, or culture, nationalist movements needed to cultivate a sense of pride in national history and culture. The Communist Party's record of active and successful resistance to the Japanese gave it. Some predate the emergence of the nation-state, while others were drawn up in the colonial era or at the. Refresh your browser window if stream does not start automatically. The focus of national loyalty for the Meiji citizen, the parliament, and the army was the restored Meiji emperor. Advocates of change found ideological and cultural expression in the iconoclastic May Fourth movement of 1920s. Hussain, Athar. Still, except during the Cultural Revolution era, resources were devoted to the conservation of palaces, temples, and artifacts, and they were presented as a source of national pride. This separation was accepted remarkably quickly. Fukuda noted that because of this commitment to inclusive national unity, most of the violent domestic conflicts of the early post-Suharto years have been extinguished. The national language, Urdu, was spoken as a first language by only 8 percent of the population, most of whom were refugees from India. Wiley-Blackwell Its offer of very limited autonomy to ethnic minorities in these territories has not prevented the growth of secessionist movements. Encyclopedia of Race and Racism.

This is a dummy description. (June 21, 2022). This is a dummy description. Debate over the electoral system, where liberal nationalists have supported proportional representation as a reflection of the diversity of Indonesia, is also characteristic of the commitment to open nationalism. 2000. For example, while there were calls for greater regional autonomy throughout the country, and mayors and local candidates were given more power, the nations cabinet rejected federalism outright, knowing that too much local autonomy would lead to the fragmentation of the state. Communalism, Secularism, and the Dilemma of Indian Nationhood. In Asian Nationalism, edited by Michael Leifer, 91125. The withdrawal of the European colonial powers from Asia soon followed, leaving nationalist parties in power in most Asian states. Foreign troops protected foreign interests, and foreign gunboats patrolled Chinese rivers. All rights reserved. The Chinese empire reached its zenith under the Manchu dynasty, when Tibet, Mongolia, and the Central Asian area that is today called Xinjiang were incorporated into its territory. Tibetan and Uighur nationalisms base their appeal on religious, linguistic, and cultural distinctiveness and, increasingly, on fear of the effects of Han in-migration. What Can We Expect from the New South Korean President? Clothing could be a divisive issue. June 2016 In most of Asia, the state has attempted to maintain a close control over education in order to ensure that the curriculum supports nation-building and the discourse of nationalism. time of independence. Prioritization of national unity has continued to be a major factor in Indonesian identity politics. 2000. There are more than 9.2 million ethnic Uigh-urs (according to a 2005 sample census) and several other smaller Muslim ethnic groups. Asian nationalist movements felt the opposing pulls of modernization and tradition. Ethnicity and Politics in Pakistan. Rarely do they provide an exact match with ethnic divides. restoration of national sovereignty, and eventually to support for the Communist Party; and in India nationalism was based on self-rule and the ideal of a secular democracy. Even more important were the new elites. From 1930, when the Congress Party adopted the demand for independence, politically conscious Muslims began to consider what their place as a minority would be in a unified independent India. Nationalism inspired revolutionaries such as Huang Xing (18741916) and Sun Yat-sen, who overthrew the Man-chu (Qing) dynasty (16441912) and set up the Republic of China. Both the Guomindang and the Chinese Communist leaders were profoundly influenced by nationalism. The Need for Entrepreneurship in Sustainable Chemistry. 2019Encyclopedia.com | All rights reserved. Fukuda also cited the 1989 pro-democracy protests in China as a significant, if failed, form of open nationalism. London and New York: Routledge. The borders of these states rarely matched ethnic divisions, and most of the new states were ethnically, culturally, and linguistically diverse. 2000. Xinjiang in China's far northwest shares borders with five Muslim-majority countriesKazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistanand is home to over eight million practicing Muslims. Rioting and civil war led to huge population transfers as Muslims crossed into Pakistan and Hindus and Sikhs into India. Successive Chinese governments accepted the loss of control over Korea, Annam, and the territory that now constitutes the Mongolian. hb```, cb#@n:4e dCik*2=O,,d*G, W K%CJOd5/Iz};N)/ NsEXI2QO " S,@$4:-,a&U* ,$3xi>pBAy1c2l^1NCEf3Z3G@" `dM,W43X,_gA16 {. Ethnic and religious tensions have fed into Uighur nationalism and encouraged a secessionist movement. ." Its linguistic diversity mirrors its ethic diversity. It also exploited hostility to the Indonesian Chinese minority, who, despite a degree of assimilation, are not regarded by the indigenous people as a part of the national community. Refer to each styles convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates. Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. 1997. Most important for Indonesia was the limited form of devolution of political and financial power that began after the fall of the Suharto regime in 1999. However, Beijing regards Tibet and Xinjiang, the homeland of the Uighurs and other Muslim minorities in the northwest, as part of China. Although nationalists usually promoted local languages in place of colonial ones, their education could mean that they themselves had a better mastery of the colonial language than any local language. arose the Republic of India and a Pakistan embracing the territories of West and East Pakistan (geographically separated by more than one thousand miles). Like other nationalisms, Asian nationalisms have deployed historical memories and myths, belief in a shared ethnicity, links to a territorial homeland, and shared cultural characteristics such as language, literature, religion, and customs to create a sense of common identity, purpose, and responsibility. Modern Myths, Locked Minds: Secularism and Fundamentalism in India. The Japanese occupation of much of East and Southeast Asia in the 1930s and the 1940s accelerated the growth of nationalism in the affected nations. The divide between Hindus and Muslims, reflected not only in religious belief but in culture and education, was a problem that became more serious within the nationalist movement over time.