Between 1530 and 1540, Protestantism in Spain was still able to gain followers clandestinely, and in cities such as Seville and Valladolid adherents would secretly meet at private houses to pray and study the Bible.
The few preachers who did take an interest in "Lutheranism", as it was called in Italy, were suppressed or went into exile to northern countries where their message was well received. [62], The Pilgrims held radical Protestant disapproval of Christmas, and its celebration was outlawed in Boston from 1659 to 1681.
Ultimately, since Calvin and Luther disagreed strongly on certain matters of theology (such as double-predestination and Holy Communion), the relationship between Lutherans and Calvinists was one of conflict. The Reformation spread throughout Europe beginning in 1517, reaching its peak between 1545 and 1620. Back then, Slovakia used to be a part of the Kingdom of Hungary. After the 1526 Battle of Mohcs, the Hungarian people were disillusioned by the inability of the government to protect them and turned to the faith they felt would infuse them with the strength necessary to resist the invader. Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, came under the influence of Protestantism.
The Duchy of Prussia, a vassal of the Polish Crown ruled by the Teutonic Knights, emerged as a key center of the movement, with numerous publishing houses issuing not only Bibles, but also catechisms, in German, Polish and Lithuanian.
The greatest geographical extent of Protestantism occurred at some point between 1545 and 1620. "[13] She carried on a long correspondence with Pope Gregory XI, asking him to reform the clergy and the administration of the Papal States. [citation needed], Hus objected to some of the practices of the Roman Catholic Church and wanted to return the church in Bohemia and Moravia to earlier practices: liturgy in the language of the people (i.e. A meeting was held in his castle in 1529, now known as the Colloquy of Marburg, which has become infamous for its complete failure. By the Copenhagen recess of October 1536, the authority of the Catholic bishops was terminated.[53]. Where Protestant reformers enjoyed princely patronage, they were much more likely to succeed. [45] The exact moment Martin Luther realised the key doctrine of Justification by Faith is described in German as the Turmerlebnis. During the Thirty Years' War, Royal (Habsburg) Hungary joined the Catholic side, until Transylvania joined the Protestant side. Although the two movements agreed on many issues of theology, as the recently introduced printing press spread ideas rapidly from place to place, some unresolved differences kept them separate.
Bagchi, David, and David C. Steinmetz, eds. [25][26] Some 100,000 peasants were killed by the end of the war.[27]. He subsequently sponsored Maximos of Gallipoli's translation of the New Testament into the Modern Greek language and it was published in Geneva in 1638. Reformers in the Church of England alternated, for decades, between sympathies between Catholic tradition and Reformed principles, gradually developing, within the context of robustly Protestant doctrine, a tradition considered a middle way (via media) between the Catholic and Protestant traditions. His desire for an annulment of his marriage was known as the King's Great Matter. The various groups had their own juridical systems. Among the most important Protestants of the Commonwealth were Mikoaj Rej, Marcin Czechowic, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski and Symon Budny. Calvinism became the most numerous Protestant group because Calvin's teachings on the role of the state within religion appealed to the nobility (known as szlachta), mainly in Lesser Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Diet of Worms of May 1521 condemned Luther and officially banned citizens of the Holy Roman Empire from defending or propagating his ideas. Jan Hus was declared a heretic and executedburned at stakeat the Council of Constance in 1415 where he arrived voluntarily to defend his teachings. No core of Protestantism emerged. Following the excommunication of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of John Calvin were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various churches in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. In the late 17th century, 150,000200,000 Huguenots fled to England, the Netherlands, Prussia, Switzerland, and the English and Dutch overseas colonies.
Henry had once been a sincere Catholic and had even authored a book strongly criticising Luther. Reformers and their opponents made heavy use of inexpensive pamphlets as well as vernacular Bibles using the relatively new printing press, so there was swift movement of both ideas and documents.
Beginning in Germany and Switzerland in the 16th century, the Radical Reformation developed radical Protestant churches throughout Europe.
Regions that were poor but had great economic potential and bad political institutions were more likely to adopt Protestantism. Although Luther preached consubstantiation in the Eucharist over transubstantiation, he believed in the real presence of Christ in the Communion bread. In general, the Reformers argued that salvation in Christianity was a completed status based on faith in Jesus alone and not a process that requires good works, as in the Catholic view. Different levels of income tax revenue per capita,% of labor force in manufacturing and services, and incomes of male elementary school teachers. As an experimental approach to reduce the caseload in Normandy, a special court just for the trial of heretics was established in 1545 in the Parlement de Rouen. The apostolic succession was retained in Sweden during the Reformation. [88] Today, Protestantism constitutes the second-largest form of Christianity (after Catholicism), with a total of 800million to 1billion adherents worldwide or about 37% of all Christians. Though not personally interested in religious reform, Francis I (reigned 15151547) initially maintained an attitude of tolerance, in accordance with his interest in the humanist movement. Harvard Series in Ukrainian Studies, 2001. [36], The following supply-side factors have been identified as causes of the Reformation:[37], The following demand-side factors have been identified as causes of the Reformation:[37], A 2020 study linked the spread of Protestantism to personal ties to Luther (e.g. An important component of the Catholic Reformation in Poland was education. [64], Bishop Richard Davies and dissident Protestant cleric John Penry introduced Calvinist theology to Wales. After the expulsion of its Bishop in 1526, and the unsuccessful attempts of the Berne reformer Guillaume (William) Farel, Calvin was asked to use the organisational skill he had gathered as a student of law to discipline the "fallen city" of Geneva.
Besides the Waldensians already present in France, Protestantism also spread in from German lands, where the Protestants were nicknamed Huguenots; this eventually led to decades of civil warfare.
During the 1520s, the Spanish Inquisition had created an atmosphere of suspicion and sought to root out any religious thought seen as suspicious. Upon the arrival of the Protestant Reformation, Calvinism reached some Basques through the translation of the Bible into the Basque language by Joanes Leizarraga. While Lutheranism gained a foothold among the German- and Slovak-speaking populations, Calvinism became widely accepted among ethnic Hungarians. The first books in Slovene, Catechismus and Abecedarium, were written by Trubar.[82].
Under the reign of Frederick I (152333), Denmark remained officially Catholic.
[79] Some also fled to England and Switzerland, including Peter Vermigli. [citation needed], The absence of Protestants, however, does not necessarily imply a failure of the Reformation. [30], The Reformation was a triumph of literacy and the new printing press.
[citation needed]. [a] Due to the reform efforts of Hus and other Bohemian reformers, Utraquist Hussitism was acknowledged by the Council of Basel and was officially tolerated in the Crown of Bohemia, although other movements were still subject to persecution, including the Lollards in England and the Waldensians in France and Italian regions.
Much of the population of the Kingdom of Hungary adopted Protestantism during the 16th century.
Calvinism was popular among the Hungarians who inhabited the southernmost parts of what is now Slovakia.
[63] The ban was revoked in 1681 by the English-appointed governor Edmund Andros, who also revoked a Puritan ban on festivities on Saturday nights. As the number of Protestants in France increased, the number of heretics in prisons awaiting trial also grew.
However, in the city of Dublin the Reformation took hold under the auspices of George Browne, Archbishop of Dublin. In the end, while the Reformation emphasis on Protestants reading the Scriptures was one factor in the development of literacy, the impact of printing itself, the wider availability of printed works at a cheaper price, and the increasing focus on education and learning as key factors in obtaining a lucrative post, were also significant contributory factors.
As Queen of Navarre, Jeanne III commissioned the translation of the New Testament into Basque[d] and Barnese for the benefit of her subjects. In 2019, Christos Yannaras told Norman Russell that although he had participated in the Zo movement, he had come to regard it as Crypto-Protestant.[83].
In the more independent northwest, the rulers and priests, protected now by the Habsburg monarchy, which had taken the field to fight the Turks, defended the old Catholic faith.
Higher capability in reading, numeracy, essay writing, and history. The Hussites were a Christian movement in the Kingdom of Bohemia following the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus. Their ideas were studied in depth.
The English Reformation followed a different course from the Reformation in continental Europe. The Reformation was thus a media revolution.
Zwingli, inspired by Dutch theologian Cornelius Hoen, believed that the Communion bread was only representative and memorialChrist was not present. [56] In 1534, the Act of Supremacy recognised Henry as "the only Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England".
Following the Affair of the Placards, culprits were rounded up, at least a dozen heretics were put to death, and the persecution of Protestants increased.
Some followers of Zwingli believed that the Reformation was too conservative and moved independently toward more radical positions, some of which survive among modern day Anabaptists.
His "Ordinances" of 1541 involved a collaboration of Church affairs with the City council and consistory to bring morality to all areas of life. [51] During his reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads among the Danish population.
[55] Von Mervitz seized a monastery in Viey with the help of his sheriff, Dietrich of Minden, and his soldiers. Friction with the pope over the latter's interference in Swedish ecclesiastical affairs led to the discontinuance of any official connection between Sweden and the papacy since 1523. Through their education, many nobles became appreciative of Catholicism or out-right converted. [citation needed]. Despite heavy persecution by Henry II, the Reformed Church of France, largely Calvinist in direction, made steady progress across large sections of the nation, in the urban bourgeoisie and parts of the aristocracy, appealing to people alienated by the obduracy and the complacency of the Catholic establishment. Hussites made up the vast majority of the population, forcing the Council of Basel to recognize in 1437 a system of two "religions" for the first time, signing the Compacts of Basel for the kingdom (Catholic and Czech Ultraquism a Hussite movement).
Erasmus and Louis de Berquin who was martyred in 1529), sometimes breaking from Rome or from the Protestants, or forming outside of the churches. Some followers of Zwingli believed that the Reformation was too conservative, and moved independently toward more radical positions, some of which survive among modern day Anabaptists. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Reformation ideas and Protestant church services were first introduced in cities, being supported by local citizens and also some nobles. The Reformation was the start of Protestantism and the split of the Western Church into Protestantism and what is now the Roman Catholic Church. By 1530, over 10,000 publications are known, with a total of ten million copies. Leaders within the Roman Catholic Church responded with the Counter-Reformation, initiated by the Confutatio Augustana in 1530, the Council of Trent in 1545, the formation of the Jesuits in 1540, the Defensio Tridentin fidei in 1578, and also a series of wars and expulsions of Protestants that continued until the 19th century. After establishing a colony at Plymouth (which became part of the colony of Massachusetts) in 1620, the Puritan pilgrims received a charter from the King of England that legitimised their colony, allowing them to do trade and commerce with merchants in England, in accordance with the principles of mercantilism. Sigismund, who was also the King of Sweden until deposed, was educated by Jesuits in Sweden before his election as King of the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth. It was more of a movement among the German people between 1517 and 1525, and then also a political one beginning in 1525.
As a result, the Reformation exerted almost no lasting influence in Italy, except for strengthening the Catholic Church and pushing for an end to ongoing abuses during the Counter-Reformation.[77][78]. Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli.
In the 1520s Luther's reforms spread among the mostly German-speaking inhabitants of such major cities as Danzig (now Gdask), Thorn (now Toru) and Elbing (now Elblg). Eire, Carlos M. N. "Calvin and Nicodemism: A Reappraisal". The early Puritan movement (late 16th17th centuries) was Reformed (or Calvinist) and was a movement for reform in the Church of England. [17][bettersourceneeded], Pope Sixtus IV (14711484) established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, thereby establishing a new stream of revenue with agents across Europe.
[55] In 1539, the King sent a new governor to Iceland, Klaus von Mervitz, with a mandate to introduce reform and take possession of church property. The faith continued to spread after Calvin's death in 1563 and reached as far as Constantinople by the start of the 17th century. In 1532, the Waldensians, who had been already present centuries before the Reformation, aligned themselves and adopted the Calvinist theology.
Upon Lucaris's death in 1638, the conservative factions within the Eastern Orthodox Church held two synods: the Synod of Constantinople (1638) and Synod of Iai (1642) criticising the reforms and, in the 1672 convocation led by Dositheos, they officially condemned the Calvinistic doctrines. The latter settled mostly in Greater Poland around Leszno. Anne Locke translated some of Calvin's writings to English around this time. This "Elizabethan Religious Settlement" largely formed Anglicanism into a distinctive church tradition.
During his reign, he selected Catholics for the highest offices in the country.
Two main tenets of the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War, were: The treaty also effectively ended the Papacy's pan-European political power.
The Augustinianism of the Reformers struggled against Pelagianism, a heresy that they perceived in the Catholic Church of their day.
The Habsburg-sanctioned Counter-Reformation efforts in the 17th century reconverted the majority of the kingdom to Catholicism.
The first two Lutheran martyrs were monks from Antwerp, Johann Esch and Heinrich Hoes, who were burned at the stake when they would not recant. In the first half of the 16th century, the enormous PolishLithuanian Commonwealth was a country of many religions and Churches, including: Roman Catholics, Byzantine Orthodox, Armenian Oriental Orthodox, Ashkenazi Jews, Karaites, and Sunni Muslims. Albert, Duke of Prussia formally declared the "Evangelical" faith to be the state religion. Lollardy was suppressed and became an underground movement, so the extent of its influence in the 1520s is difficult to assess. Similar attitudes developed among Catholics, who in turn encouraged the creation and use of music for religious purposes. During the Reformation era Protestantism was unsuccessful in Portugal, as its spread was frustrated for similar reasons to those in Spain.
Catholics labeled self-identified Evangelicals "Lutherans" to discredit them after the practice of naming a heresy after its founder. Some Protestants left Italy and became outstanding activists of the European Reformation, mainly in the PolishLithuanian Commonwealth (e.g. It swept through the Bavarian, Thuringian and Swabian principalities, including the Black Company of Florian Geier, a knight from Giebelstadt who joined the peasants in the general outrage against the Catholic hierarchy.
This established the preconditions for a series of destructive and intermittent conflicts, known as the Wars of Religion.
From there, it became clear that print could be used for propaganda in the Reformation for particular agendas, although the term propaganda derives from the Catholic Congregatio de Propaganda Fide (Congregation for Propagating the Faith) from the Counter-Reformation. Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality.
Gassmann, Gnther, and Mark W. Oldenburg.
The Reformation is usually dated to 31 October 1517 in Wittenberg, Saxony, when Luther sent his Ninety-Five Theses on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences to the Archbishop of Mainz. The Puritans objected to ornaments and ritual in the churches as idolatrous (vestments, surplices, organs, genuflection), calling the vestments "popish pomp and rags" (see Vestments controversy). The study argues that these social ties contributed more to the Reformation's early breakthroughs than the printing press. [85], The Reformation and Counter-Reformation era conflicts are termed the European wars of religion. When Henry died he was succeeded by his Protestant son Edward VI, who, through his empowered councillors (with the King being only nine years old at his succession and fifteen at his death) the Duke of Somerset and the Duke of Northumberland, ordered the destruction of images in churches, and the closing of the chantries.
Lutheranism gained a significant following in the eastern half of present-day Austria, while Calvinism was less successful. Experts often speak of a gradual process of realization between 1514 and 1518. Gudziak, Borys A. In Switzerland, the teachings of the reformers and especially those of Zwingli and Calvin had a profound effect, despite frequent quarrels between the different branches of the Reformation.
All of Scandinavia ultimately adopted Lutheranism over the course of the 16th century, as the monarchs of Denmark (who also ruled Norway and Iceland) and Sweden (who also ruled Finland) converted to that faith. In the early 17th century internal theological conflict within the Calvinist church between two tendencies of Calvinism, the Gomarists and the liberal Arminians (or Remonstrants), resulted in Gomarist Calvinism becoming the de facto state religion.
Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity (13781416) excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, especially from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Common factors that played a role during the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation included the rise of the printing press, nationalism, simony, the appointment of Cardinal-nephews, and other corruption of the Roman Curia and other ecclesiastical hierarchy, the impact of humanism, the new learning of the Renaissance versus scholasticism, and the Western Schism that eroded loyalty to the Papacy. Two churches with Hussite roots are now the second and third biggest churches among the largely agnostic peoples: Czech Brethren (which gave origin to the international church known as the Moravian Church) and the Czechoslovak Hussite Church. Under Edward VI the Church of England moved closer to continental Protestantism. The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, the Crown of Bohemia, Hungary, Slovene Lands, the Spanish Netherlands and much of Germany and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Catholic Church. [15] Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428. [54] In 1538, when the kingly decree of the new Church ordinance reached Iceland, bishop gmundur and his clergy denounced it, threatening excommunication for anyone subscribing to the German "heresy". The Reformation impacted the Western legal tradition. Ottoman incursions decreased conflicts between Protestants and Catholics, helping the Reformation take root. She finds, "in contemporary scholarship, the Reformation is now seen as a vast cultural upheaval, a social and popular movement, textured and rich because of its diversity. But compared to the bloody and chaotic state of affairs in contemporary France, it was relatively successful, in part because Queen Elizabeth lived so long, until the Puritan Revolution or English Civil War in the seventeenth century. Yet, at a popular level, religion in England was still in a state of flux. [citation needed]. However, the Lutheran Church traditionally sees itself as the "main trunk of the historical Christian Tree" founded by Christ and the Apostles, holding that during the Reformation, the Church of Rome fell away.
[87], Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, who issued a protest (or dissent) against the edict of the Diet of Speyer (1529), were the first individuals to be called Protestants. Ultimately Pope Clement VII refused the petition; consequently it became necessary for the King to assert his lordship over the church in his realm to give legal effect to his wishes. [51] Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans,[52] yet he quickly adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers, of whom the most famous was Hans Tausen. Primo Trubar is notable for consolidating the Slovene language and is considered to be the key figure of Slovenian cultural history, in many aspects a major Slovene historical personality.
In 1563, the Brest Bible was published (see also Bible translations into Polish). Many Hussites thus declared themselves Lutherans. After the Heidelberg Disputation (1518) where Luther described the Theology of the Cross as opposed to the Theology of Glory and the Leipzig Disputation (1519), the faith issues were brought to the attention of other German theologians throughout the Empire. Austria followed the same pattern as the German-speaking states within the Holy Roman Empire, and Lutheranism became the main Protestant confession among its population. Some[who?]
These two movements quickly agreed on most issues, but some unresolved differences kept them separate. The unique government (Poland was a republic where the citizen nobility owned the state) meant the king could not enforce a religious settlement even he if so desired.
Lucas Cranach the Elder (14721553), the great painter patronised by the electors of Wittenberg, was a close friend of Luther, and he illustrated Luther's theology for a popular audience. They drove the monks out and seized all their possessions, for which they were promptly excommunicated by gmundur.
If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article. Czech), having lay people receive communion in both kinds (bread and winethat is, in Latin, communio sub utraque specie), married priests, and eliminating indulgences and the concept of purgatory.