Intentions, Attitudes, and Interests7.

9 0 obj

In authority, one may be commanded to do something undesirable, but will do it anyway because one believes he should. If one is exchanging ten strings of beads for one thousand acres, and if this is the bargain where the interests of each touch, then they have equal bargaining power. endobj This is because, in his use of the term, it does not entail offensive blackmail strategies designed to get an adversary to give up something of value. 1: The Dynamic Psychological Field

0000004774 00000 n

My discussion of coercion has so far emphasized its nature as power, but not its psychological basis. Authoritative power thus comprises two interests.

Now a threat of sanction or deprivation of some kind is the usual manner in which one is coerced into manifesting a negative interest. For i to overcome j's negative interest x, while avoiding force, i must tie x to another positive or negative interest y, such that j will on balance prefer x to y. If one negative interests is much stronger than accepting the threat, then coercion may be defeated. . The goal of one attitude may persuasively be shown more instrumental to a higher goal than other attitudes ("College graduates earn a higher lifetime income than non college graduates") or a particular goal can be argued to be gratified through another attitude ("Join the army and see the world"). In addition to the threat of or limited use of force (or both), coercion may entail economic sanctions, psychological pressures, and social ostracism. To conclude, I have pointed out the following: (1)We can define a person's negative interest as some goal he does not want in some circumstance and the strength of this feeling or desire against it.

His commands are therefore just and proper routes to his, and thus their, success. who demonstrates against the Vietnam War, or who goes to prison to protest a

34 0 obj

Parsons is talking about authoritative power, as I define in Section 20.5. 0000017032 00000 n Persuasion may cause another to change their mind, or their preferences among interests, to, say, go to college rather than join the army. Vol. Psychologically, authority works through the superego.

Considering the first, parents often exercise considerable power over their children's situation. 0000008932 00000 n The other's love for humanity, his nation, or group can induce such love based interests.

endobj

(N=wdVN4@h*D;cSk. #dDI!tn:{UsTs?oL i8-+?' t8F9n8)L4*Q|bnL?JAcX)ky}b}I2pq[-fg'{,c425C2KAh[Uj8PCnK/gCx(d$2ZWZb(j-j9kf :UB*!?Nd0/@ 8T[clc*8Bnwa^5}/QeFF%Q2(NpvZ~K[ZJ1(cd+/,2gpd_D?4&zg~r' #%Xrr-9"Y^"rZ "]R]-.lij8+KiYhf8t3 ?+;3S57`8N%.f0O/nc&+0V'Y9$IAN}1E`4scmU%"pZ2)1>O{E>uox>,F+$~~MGqHB jeG 0FHY5:YQax`0V}~budscv@,^#tN!5hB $6:m-u/ HleW!1=eeP^>.\:DUW].|hrtwAkt{%4*w=#^r>KV. It is involved in the exchange of compliments, greetings, dinner invitations, letters. But knocking them unconscious and taking something from them is the use of force.

5. Regardless of who is the police officer or the judge or

(2)Coercion is then the intentional generation of two alternative negative interests between which a person must choose, where one is generated by a threat in order to make the other a likely choice. 0000015088 00000 n

Not only through manipulating the situation, but also through actual control over opportunities does one affect another. . One obeys the request or command because it is thought proper--legitimate.

42 0 obj We also live to help others.

As described, then, authoritative power is a capability to use legitimacy to convince a person to do something. A coerced individual's will is free, and in this lies the great unpredictability of coercion.

"r`," jqu{eu <>

According to Tilly, at the core of state formation is the concentration of coercive power over a given territory and the subjugation of rival centres of coercive capacity.

Please select which sections you would like to print: Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content.

WeH-T"i&!g&|~w ( Bp ``x*M#J0k'&C<1A@p; Ca~Xgd-KnD(!p>A \0(Q={38h6x|q}}~Cy DXBN ^ZV'Z?DtXeQ7vXS/6*aZYNvr[FXb)Xs"bZ-W_T=?VT/t:%hhqI4PB`K~I7..Tmc|y}{I(Np9-z_MQ&P{:p{.~\g o,Zkd/mibu}noloJSn$_Ghm_EOBz|B?`p[:oZhjJ}za[ 0000001515 00000 n 49 0 obj 0000004571 00000 n And escape from this situation is explicitly or implicitly prevented by two barriers, as shown in Figure 20.1. Now both x and y can be negative or positive interests.

The promise need not be enunciated, but may be implicit in the other's field of expression or in the social relationship. A person in love cannot be distracted; a person working for humanity cannot be deflected. 0000005973 00000 n endobj One is persuaded, however, to do what is undesired because of the relationship of the outcome to one's positive interests ("Drink your milk, sweetheart, and you'll grow up to be a healthy women") or because it is shown to be the lesser of two evils ("If you don't work, you must accept charity").

0000011386 00000 n

It is manifested by the person who does not tell another bad news, who employs symbols to project status (e.g., Rolls Royce), who creates a seductive situation (soft music, low lights, wine), or who chooses the side of the court that places his tennis opponent with the sun in his eyes. Behavior9.

If the points of the x and y vectors touch as in Figure 20.2a, then there is only one determinant solution to the bargain. This difference between positive and negative interests is the gulf between open libertarian social relationships and closed coercive ones. Indeed, such interests are a basic force in social relations that serve as the basis for reform movements, ideologies, politics, and conflict. How does one deter or compel others? 4. However, his work evinces some of the prevailing contradictory and confusing uses of the terms coercion, persuasion, compellance, and deterrence.

It has been often said that coercion is the greatest evil, for we are given no choice but two evils.

Parents may avoid sending their children to a particular school for fear of the kind of group they may encounter;

And as in coercion, credibility is crucial: a person by reputation, previous behavior, commitments, or capability must show that he can and will follow through on his promises. One manifests both coercive and bargaining power through the generation of an alternative interest by creating the expectation of deprivations or rewards.

Let me call this ability to persuade another intellectual power. %PDF-1.4 % Getting a person to willfully give you something is using social power.

55 0 obj

Coercion is more than a threat of some future sanction, however.

Before moving on, I should stress the domain of bargaining power. .

)u5Z5s?Ur^;"%hY: Indeed, it underlies all social exchange, all situations of social reciprocity.

Even an ordained minister can hardly expect to persuade a scientist about the revealed truth of an empirical proposition. It is of the form: "If you do (or do not do) x, then y will follow." coercion, threat or use of punitive measures against states, groups, or individuals in order to force them to undertake or desist from specified actions. This kind of coercive situation for j is also characterized by two negative interests between which he must choose. They have authority. To clarify the bargaining situation, consider Figure 20.2a, which shows two individuals i and j and their positive interests x and y, which are projected as vectors from each self towards the other.

Distances17. He who sets the rules has power over the process.9 Teachers may try to increase a student's opportunities by increasing their cognitive complexity (say through mathematics and logic), the sophistication of their conceptualization and their knowledge. In addition, the concept of coercion has been central to the postwar studies on deterrence, crisis management, and statecraft in the political science subfield of international relations. endobj

endobj Vol.

endobj Here is the eye around which swirls much of the tactics and strategy of conflict.

See, for example, Schelling (1960; 1966). The length of each vector measures the strength of each interest, that is, how much each wants to gain (x for i and y for j) and how much each is willing to give up (y for i and x for j) accordingly. 2. WZVnvZhY@(Dl5[YIaZuE`X7 H}gG1#1Ki;k0M0E Yet, when someone you love asks you to do something, you do so not because of persuasion or legitimacy or bargaining or coercion, but because your loved one asks. And the attitude's ingredients are situation, self, want, and goal.

Similarly, manipulation in certain contexts can be justified. These are close to what I call identive and assertive power. }TeWO'%|qt~}peisoNpR}^/XQV;O1X7e?jD#D4/D%n4~{q} CK#1hf( However, the more general concept of authoritative power should be seen as encompassing these three kinds and will suffice for my immediate purposes. Both work through another self. As in all psychologically conflictful situations, when i is coerced he would prefer to "leave the field," to run away from the threat. Some have given up tens of thousands of dollars in money (which could purchase hundreds of acres of land) for a small stone--a diamond. The Equation of Social Behavior12. One, which may be positive or negative, is that commanded or requested. Omissions?

In this case y is the stronger negative interest, the more powerful "I do not want . 0000005789 00000 n 0000009443 00000 n

Moreover, traffic laws, or those protecting property and the person, ultimately are based on coercion, and justifiably to the benefit of most people. A tortured spy can be threatened with additional suffering unless he yields the desired information. The owner, however, is asking for $38,000.

But as norms of behavior or as the rule of government, both coercive and manipulative power are to be minimized. qG|Yg)f7O2\S v|x:{^0Om#:>Capj/=hIir(OXQw5vuc ]o Parsons (1963, p. 256) treats power as a symbolic medium "like money in that it is itself 'worthless,' but is accepted in the expectation that it can later be 'cashed in,' this time in the activation of binding obligations" (italics added). If positive interests are blocked, as in the figure, one must choose between negative interests. Types of Social Interaction11. The use or threat of coercion has been central to international relations and domestic politics. ."

uuid:4a976e1a-aa0a-11b2-0a00-782dad000000

Of course, conformity with the evidential norms governing the interests in question is also required. H|Vr6}W# Vd" $$& Uu{;{8 ae4J( v7hoIIe)7,iCPr1Z/v\\ KUZof4.6;>,(aY`qO{+@sIBk`78n!xch`j%6>MI0M U%t${,#taL)l a[QhgHHIwR7y)8SqnkcSz"v; !5U)g,V Moreover, Kuhn defines coercion as a bargaining power, while I make it a separate form altogether. The prototype of an economic transaction rests on a formal contract that stipulates the exact quantities to be exchanged.

In this situation, he has authority, as does a reader asking that I refrain from disturbing him in a library. As pointed out in Chapter 9, what distinguishes social behavior is an intentional orientation towards another self. Now, such power is not necessarily restricted to a person loved by the other. Nonetheless, the choice of an interest x can be made more probable by increasing the power (negative interest) of y. 0000005345 00000 n 0000004392 00000 n

If the threat is incredible, then from j's perspective there is no coercion, for he has no opposing alternative negative interests to choose between. Altruistic power is then a capability to use love to induce a person into doing something. endobj

Perceiving Another6. Positive wants, the interests that the self would gratify were no other interests in conflict, are then powers moving out from the self. This was again highlighted in the premodern political theories of Niccol Machiavelli and Thomas Hobbes. :$vkInRczF-A1 ," and thus x would be chosen over y by i. The commonality is the presence of some mutual positive interests x and y, such that one person can exchange x for y and another y for x.6. For many, accepting official law is such a negative interest manifested only because of the connected threat of sanctions if the law is broken. Pioneering work on the use of coercion in strategies of conflict was done by the American economist and Nobel Prize laureate Thomas Schelling.

He who wields the formula then can affect the interest of those who share its vision. <>/ExtGState<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]>>/Rotate 0/Type/Page>> Freedom and Intentional Humanism5. By controlling the situation, manipulative power works through another's perception.

Authority is often defined relative to a position, such as that of policeman, judge, boss, and so on.7 In this sense, authority is then the rightness of a request or command associated with another's role.

The Concept of Field3.

10 0 obj

. My view of social exchange and the role of power in it is close to his.

American-led military interventions in the Middle East radicalized nationalist forces in the Muslim world, for instance, and some of these radical forces attempted punitive and coercive attacks against the United States. Nonetheless, the self has a choice, even if between two evils, and therefore chooses willfully. It is understood that "legitimacy" is as seen in the other's perspective. Psychologically, how do coercion and bargaining compare? Between lying to convict a friend or a long jail term for oneself, the choice is not so clear.

The success of coercive strategies has had a mixed record in the modern era. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. endobj Recall that an interest is an attitude plus its strength to be manifest. <> Since the negative interest y has no strength, only x (giving him your money) remains, and this can be ignored.

You want to do whatever helps the other; together you form a whole and whatever interests the other, interests yourself. }Le(0'irF\yem0J(l5X32L:Z4@sZbD:=(& &lp(/e3%N7$ yblV-JCo?l6k [Y`N)0|bPdPXlJo@n 1+X!X94. Consider the charismatic leader.

When we persuade another to do something we want because we have made their interest clear to them, this is a form of power.

2 0 obj

4: War, Power, Peace

With these counteractions blocked, only a choice between the threat and demand may be left, and the choice will depend on which of these two negative interests is stronger. But in coercion, a self faced with two negative alternatives controls the final choice. It is not my concern here to deal with such topics,3 but simply to suggest their relationship to the psychological nature of coercion. 0000003971 00000 n A mathematician (not by position, but by training) asking for the derivation of my theorem has the legitimate power to do so. 0000016729 00000 n Testing for the Existence of Exchange, Authoritative, and Coercive Societies35.

We do not exist simply to manifest our selves.

0000011484 00000 n

;U")Oy_QwjVO In both situations of coercion, the threat of future or continued deprivation, j's self is placed by i's threat between two powers, both of which are negative interests. to promote communism, who gives up all he owns to be a missionary in Africa,

But this does not constitute bargaining or coercion, since no exchange relationship is involved, except insofar as you show that a person's previous preferences would lead to deprivations or less reward. 0000015591 00000 n The translator of Weber equates "authority" with Weber's "Legitime Herrschaft," which is authority in Parsons terms.

Surely, such is strengthened by making irrevocable commitments, developing a reputation for executing threats when called, making only reasonable threats, forming coalitions to back one's threats, and so on. Coercion is different from the use of brute force to completely defeat an adversary, because it aims to modify the behaviour of an opponent, ideally through threats and, at most, the limited and demonstrative use of force. To develop a skill, you must devote considerable time to practice.

HV{PSW?I "X4m%hi^ @-+@f"A$( The domain of bargaining power comprises all social relations. 0000005114 00000 n

0000017263 00000 n The success of coercion, the relative aspect of coercive power, is then a function of these two variables: a person's behavioral dispositions, which is the negative interest x transformed through the person's psychological field; and his expectations, which relate negative interest y to x within this dynamic field.

Whether the entire transaction is consummated at a given time, in which case the contract may never be written, or not, all the transfers to be made now or in the future are agreed upon at the time of sale. This would be manipulative power, in my terms. 0000016694 00000 n

Love, then, in the service of a higher cause or another person, is the seat of inductive interests: of altruistic power. But there is a meaningful difference in degree of explicit promises and rewards. evil.

8. The link between power and expectations has been noted by others, such as Simon (1957) and Abramson et al. Persuasion involves changing the salience of an interest wholly through generating a re-evaluation of its constituents and relationship to other interests; coercion involves two alternative negative interests; bargaining two positive interests. Another possibility may be counteraction, such as grabbing for the gun, producing one's own gun, calling for help, and so on, but this "escape route" also may not be possible, forming another barrier. They point out that control over the rules of decision-making, rights of appeal, etc.

Coercion works through expectations. of one is the interest of the other.

For example, you have intentionally affected another self if by reason you persuade him that he should always obey the law because either in his moral scheme it's wrong not to, or because of the consequences for all if each takes it upon himself to decide what law is to be obeyed. The length of the vectors indicating their strength.

.

Clearly, the form of social power manifested through control over perceptions or opportunities is a manipulative power.

0000017286 00000 n ." endstream From where does this love come? The major difference is that I include economic exchange, where Blau feels (p. 93) that social exchange "differs in important ways from strictly economic exchange. See Bachrach and Baratz (1962). This need, as basic as sex, hunger, and security, must be the source of love's energy.

Corrections? That is, the underlying attitude may be a positive "I want . 5: The Just Peace.

Indeed, this power is developed to a high degree in the fine arts and theater, where the goal is to create a specific situation influencing the perception, interests, and emotions of viewers in a particular way.